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DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION 



HORSE, MULE, CATTLE, SHEEP, SWINE, 
POULTRY, AND FARM DOGS. 

WITH DIRECTIONS FOR 

THEIR MANAGEMENT, BREEDING, CROSSING, REARING, 

FEEDING, AND PREPARATION FOR A 

PROFITABLE MARKET 

ALSO, 

"HEIR DISEASES, AND REMEDIES. 

TOGETHER WITH 

FULL DIRECTIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY. 
By RV L; ALLEN, 

AUTHOR OF " COMPEND OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURE," ETC. 



NEW YORK: 

A. 0. MOORE, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER, 

(LATE 0. M. SAXTON A CO.,) 

NO. 140 FULTON STEEET. 
18 5 9. 



Entered icwml'ng to an Act of Congress in the yenr 1847 

ttT RICHARD L. ALLEN, 

la the Clcnc s Offi ;e of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 
District of New York. 



%* 



o 



KA 



z*1 



INTRODUCTION. 



The object of the following work, on the History, Breeding, 
Management, Diseases, &c, of Domestic Animals, is to afford 
the Stock-breeder and Grazier a connected view of the entire 
subject in which he has so deep an interest. The writer has 
endeavored to compress within the limited space assumed as 
necessary to secure a general circulation and perusal, such 
principles and practice, and give to each that relative promi- 
nence, which it becomes the practical man to observe, to 
realize the greatest amount of value for the labor and capital 
devoted to his pursuits. 

Their history is essential, as it shows their introduction into 
the United States, their progress during the various stages of 
their improvement, and the comparative value of the improved 
and ordinary breeds. A knowledge of the best mode of 
breeding and management is of still higher importance. The 
first will enable the breeder to preserve the high character of 
the animals in his hands, or perhaps still farther to advance 
them; while proper management and feeding will prevent 
that deterioration and loss from disease, which frequently 
subtract so much from his profits. 

A larger space has been purposely devoted to the last 
topics, in preference to the subject of diseases, as prevention is 
not only less troublesome than cure, but much more econom- 
ical. Feeding and management, after breeding, are really the 
important objects in view to the Stock-breeder and Graziei, for 
if these be judiciously attended to, disease among the herda 
will rarely be known. 



6 IBfTRODUCT ON. 

The subject of animal diseases is complicated and little un* 
derstood ; and to be properly comprehended, requires years 
of close, intelligent study, under every advantage for obtaining 
the necessary information. Nearly every disorder assumes 
various shades of difference, and to remove it effectually a 
corresponding change of treatment is required. How absurd 
then the idea, that a compilation of formal remedies, adminis- 
tered by an unskilful or inexperienced manager, will be of 
material service in rescuing his herds or flocks from the rava- 
ges of disease. All that can consistently be done, is to give 
a few simple remedies for the most common and well-known 
ailments, and leave to nature or a professional farrier, such as 
are more complex or unusual. 

This work (with many subsequent and important additions) 
constitutes a small part of the " Compend of American Agri- 
culture," the favorable reception of which, though but recently 
given to the public, has induced the writer to offer this im 
pcrtant division of the subject in its presert detached, form. 

New York, November. 1847. 



INDEX. 



Page 
Animals, domestic, reared in the U. 

States 9 

their number and value 9 

their improvement 10 

adaptation to various objects. . . 10 
general form and characteristics 13 

the lungs 14 

respiration 14 

effects of 17 

perspiration IS 

food which supplies respiration- 18 
circumstances which augment 

respiration 19 

food 21 

purposes fulfilled by food 22 

nutritive qualities for various 

animals 23 

profit of feeding 25 

See Cattle, Sheep, &c. 

Ass, the 181 

varieties 181 

characteristics 182 

breeding in the U. States 182 

as a beast of burden 183 



Breeding— principles of 

See Cattle, Sheep, &c. 



Cattle — neat or horned 

various domestic breeds 

native cattle 

De vons 

short-horns •• 

Herefords 

Ayrshire 

management of calves 

Dreeding 

breaking steers 

management of oxen 

fattening and stall-feeding 

Diseases 41 

hoven 

choking 

inflammation of stomach 

mange or scab 

horn-ail— jaundice 

mad- itch— bloody murrain 

hoof-ail • 

loss of cud— scours or diarrhoea 
— warbles or grubs — wounds 
—puerperal or milk-fever 

caked bags— garget— sore teats 

— warts 

Cows for dairy 

management of 

milking 

See Dairy. 
Comparative value of oxen and 

horses 

Churns 



11 



190 



Dairy, the 



60 



Paob 

Dairy — selection and management of 

cows ••eOjGl 

milking 61 

properties of milk 6S 

variations in 63 

cream — clouted ditto 66 

Making butter from sour, sweet, 

and clouted cream 6o, 67 

sourness of cream 68 

quickness in churning .'. . 68 

over-churniug 69 

temperature of milk and cream. 69 

advantages of churn'g the whole 69 

cleanliness in churning ... 70 

premium butter, how made — 70 

Orange county do. do. — 71 

Making cheese, how effected — 72 

creamed and uncreamed 73 

buttermilk cheese 73 

whey do 74 

vegetable substances added — 74 

preparation of rennet 75 

different qualities of cheese — 77 

warming the milk 77 

quality of rennet 78 

quantity of rennet 78 

treatment of curd 79 

separation of whey 80 

cheese, salting 8J 

addition of cream 81 

size of cheese 81 

mode of curing 82 

ammoniacal cheese 82 

inoculating do 82 

premium cheese, how made — 83 
Ducks — see Poultry. 

Farm dogs 207-214 

Feeding defined 21 

See Cattle, Sheep, &c. 
Food, comparative nutritive qual- 
ities of 22 

how given,purposes fulfilled by it 22 

changes in 24 

See Animals, Products, &c. 

Geese— see Poultry. 
Guinea-hen— see ditto. 

Hens— see Poultry. 

Hinny — see Ass. 

Horse — the Arabian and Barb 138 

the English 139 

American 141 

Arabians in America 139, 140 

Ranger, the Barb — Bussorah — 
Narraganset pacers — Messen- 
ger, imported . . . • • 140 

Morgan horses > • 142 

Canadian and Spanish 143 

Conestoga 143 

Norman 144 

Cart, Cleveland bay, Belfounder 144 



INDEX. 



.AGE 

Horses— Eclipse, American 141 

points of 146 

habits 147 

breeding 148 

management of colts 149 

breaking 150 

longevity, feeding 151 

Diseases 1 54 

glanders 154 

lampas, heaves, &c 155 

catarrh or distemper, spasmod- 
ic colic 156 

flatulent colic 158 

inflammation of bowels 159 

physicking 162 

worms 164 

bots 164 

wind-galls 165 

the fetlock 166 

cutting 166 

sprain of the coffin-joint— ring- 
bone ,.. 167 

enlargement of the hock 168 

curb 168 

bone-spavin — swelled legs 170 

grease 171 

setons 173 

founder — poison from weeds . . • 174 

inflammation of the eyes 175 

stings of hornets, &c 175 

sprain 175 

bruises— fistula 176 

wounds — galls 176 

shoeing, contraction of the foot- 176 

corns 177 

over-reach, forging or clicking. . 178 

the bearing-rein 178 

the bit 179 

stables 180 

comparative labor with oxen • • 190 

M. lie, the— breeding in the U. S. .. . 183 

rearing and management 184 

advantages over horse-labor . . • 185 

valuable qualities 185 

enduringness of 186 

in California. 188 

economy of mule-labor 189 

Poultry— their value 214 

Hens— constituent of eggs 214 

food 215 

general management 216 

the poultry-house 218 

varieties 220,221 

diseases 222 

Turkey, the 223 

breeding and management 223 

Peacock, the 224 

Goose, the— varieties— breeding. . 225 

feeding and food 225 

Ducks— feeding— varieties 226 

breeding and rearing 227 

Sheep, the 84 

uses of— importance of 85 

varieties of wild— domesticated 87 

native 69 



Pads 

Sheep— the Merino, histo-y of 90 

exportation from Spain 92 

importation into the U. States.. 93 

varieties 94 

Saxon, the 96 

Rambouillet. the 99 

history of Merino in U. States- . 101 

improvements of 102 

peculiarities of 103 

breeding 104 

localities for rearing 106 

South-Down, the, history of 106 

Cheviot, the...., 109 

Long-wools, the 110 

improvement of the Bakewell- . 110 
improvement of Cotswold and 

Lincolnshire 112 

peculiarities of the Long- wools. 113 
importation into the U. States.. 113 

breeding sheep 113 

Winter management 116 

sheep-barns and sheds 116 

racks, mangers, and troughs ... 117 

food 118 

management of ewes, yeaning. . 119 

management of lambs 119 

castrating and docking 120 

tagging or clatting 121 

Summer management and food • • 121 

washing 122 

shearing 124 

smearing and salving 125 

weaning 126 

drafting 126 

stall-feeding — management on 

the prairies 127 

Diseases 128 

diarrhoea or scours 129 

looseness in lambs, dvsentery.. 130 

hoven, braxy .' 130 

costiveness, stretches, poison, 
inflammation of lungs, rot ... 131 

foot-rot 132 

flies, maggots, gad-fly 133 

swollen mouth, foul noses, weak- 
ness, scab 134 

ticks, pelt- rot, staggers or sturdy 135 

abortion, garget, bleeding 136 

wounds 137 

to protect from wolves and foxes 1 38 

Shepherd's dog 209 

Swine 192 

various breeds 194 

breeding and rearing 198 

rearing and fattening, large 

weights 199 

treatment of food 201 

products of the carcass 202 

lard oil, how made 203 

stearine and oleine 203 

curing pork and hams 203 

Diseases 204 

coughs and inflammation of the 
lungs, costiveness, itch, kid- 
ney-worm 205 

blind staggers 206 

Wild Boar 1931 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS, 



CHAPTER I. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS— GENERAL PRINCIPIJES OF 
BREEDING, NUTRITION, MANAGEMENT, &c. 

The principal domestic animals reared for economical pur- 
poses in the United States, are Horned or neat cattle, the 
Horse, the Mule, Sheep, and Swine. A few Asses are bred, 
but for no other object than to keep up the supply of jacks 
for propagating mules. We have also goats, rabbits, and the 
house domestics, the dog and cat ; the two former, only in 
very limited numbers, but both the latter much beyond our 
legitimate wants. There have been a few specimens of the 
Alpaca imported, and an arrangement is now in progress for 
the introduction of a flock of several hundred, which, if dis- 
tributed among intelligent and wealthy agriculturists, as pro- 
posed, will test their value for increasing our agricultural 
resources. We shall confine ourselves to some general con- 
siderations, connected with the first-mentioned and most im- 
portant of our domestic animals. 

Their number as shown by the agricultural statistics col- 
lected in 1839, by order of our General Government, was 
15,000,000 neat cattle ; 4,335,000 horses and mules, (the 
number of each not being specified ;) 19,311,000 sheep ; and 
26,300,000 swine. There is much reason to question the entire 
accuracy of these returns, yet there is doubtless an approxima- 
tion to the truth. Sheep have greatly increased since that 
period, and would probably number, the present year, (1848,) 
not less than 30,000,000 ; and if our own manufactures con- 
tinue to thrive, and we should moreover become wool exporters, 
of which there is now a reasonable prospect, an accurate re- 
turn for 1850, will undoubtedly give us not 'ess than 33,000,000 
for the entire Union There has been a £ eat increase in the 



10 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

value of the other animals enumerated, but not in a ratio cor- 
responding with that of sheep. This is not only manifest in 
their augmented numbers, but in the gradual and steady im- 
provement of the species. 

It may be safely predicted, that this improvement will not 
only be sustained, but largely increased ; for there are some 
intelligent and spirited breeders to be found in every section 
of the country, whose liberal exertions and successful examples 
are doing much for this object. Wherever intelligence and 
sound judgment are to be found, it will be impossible long to 
resist the effects of a comparison between animals, which, on 
an equal quantity of the same food, with the same attention 
and in the same time, will return 50, 20, or even 10 per cent, 
more in their intrinsic value or marketable product, than the 
ordinary class. This improvement has been, relatively, most 
conspicuous in the Western and Southern states ; not that the 
present average of excellence in their animals surpasses, or 
even reaches that of the North and East ; but the latter have 
long been pursuing this object, with more or less energy, and 
they have for many years had large numbers of excellent 
specimens of each variety ; while with few exceptions, if we 
exclude the blood-horse or racing nag, the former have, till 
recently, paid comparatively little attention to the improvement 
of their domestic animals. The spirit for improvement through 
extensive sections, is now awakened, and the older settled por- 
tions of the country may hereafter expect competitors, whose 
success will be fully commensurate with their own. Before 
going into the management of the different varieties, we will 
give some general principles and remarks applicable to the 
treatment of all. 

The purpose for which animals are required, should be first 
determined, before selecting such as may be necessary either 
for breeding or use. Throughout the Northeastern states, 
cows for the dairy, oxen for the yoke, and both for the butcher, 
are wanted. In much of the West and South, beef alone is 
the principal object ; while the dairy is neglected, and the work 
of the ox is seldom relied on, except for occasional drudgery. 

Sheep may be wanted almost exclusively for the fleece, or 
for the fleece and heavy mutton, or in the neighborhood of 
markets, for large early lambs. The pastures and winter 
food, climate, and other conditions, present additional circum- 
stances, which should be well considered before determining 
on the particular breed, either of cattle or sheep, that will best 
1 -omote the interes of the farmer. 



PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 11 

The kind of work for which the horse may be wanted, whether 
as a roadster, for the saddle, as a heavy team horse, or the horse 
of all work, must bt; first decided, before selecting the form or 
character of the animal. 

The range of pig excellence is more circumscribed, as it is 
only necessary to breed such as will yield the greatest amount 
of valuable carcass, within the shortest time, and with the least 
expense. 

PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 

All breeding is founded on the principle, that like begets like. 
This is, however, liable to some exceptions, and is much 
more generally true when breeding down than when breeding 
up. If two animals (which can never be exactly similar in all 
respects) are requisite to the perpetuation of the species, it 
necessarily results, that the progeny must differ in a more or 
less degree from each parent. With wild animals, and such 
of the domestic as are allowed to propagate without the inter- 
ference of art, and whose habits, treatment, and food arc 
nearly similar to their natural condition, the change through 
successive generations is scarcely perceptible. It is only 
when we attempt to improve their good qualities, that it is 
essential carefully to determine, and rigidly to apply, what are 
adopted as the present scientific principles of breeding. We 
cannot believe that we have penetrated beyond the mere 
threshold of this art. Unless, then, we launch into experi- 
ments, which are necessarily attended with uncertainty, our 
duty will be, to take for our guide the most successful prac- 
tice of modern times, until further discoveries enable us to 
modify or add to such as are already known and adopted. 
We may assume, then, as the present rules for this art, 

1st. That the animals selected for breed, should unite in 
themselves all the good qualities we wish to perpetuate in the 
offspring. 

2d. These qualities, technically called points, should be in- 
bred in the animals as far as practicable, by a long line of 
descent from parents similarly constituted. The necessity for 
this rule is evident from the fact, that in mixing different spe- 
cies, and especially mongrels, with a long-established breed, 
the latter will most st^ngly stamp the issue with its own 
peculiarities. This is forcibly illustrated in the case of the 
I)evon cattle, an ancient race, wh^se color, form, and charac- 
teristics are strikingly perpetuated, sometimes to the six h or 



12 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

even a later generation. So far is this principle carried by 
many experienced breeders, that they will use an animal of 
indifferent external appearance, but of approved descent, (blood,) 
in preference to a decidedly superior one, whose pedigree is 
imperfect. 

3d. All the conditions of soil, situation, climate, treatment, 
and food, should be favorable to the object sought. 

4th. As a general rule, the fcmale should be relatively larger 
than the male. This gives ample room for the perfect devel- 
opment of the foetus, easy parturition, and a large supply of 
milk for the offspring, at a period in its existence, when food 
has a greater influence in perfecting character and form, than 
at any subsequent time. 

5th. Exceptions to this rule may be made, when greater size 
is required than can be obtained from the female, and espe- 
cially when more vigor and hardiness of constitution are de- 
sirable. For this purpos-e, strong masculine development in 
the sire is proper, and if otherwise unattainable, something of 
coarseness may be admitted, as this may be afterwards cor- 
rected, and nothing will atone for want of constitution and 
strength. 

6th. Pairing should be with a strict reference to correcting 
the imperfections of one animal, by a corresponding excellence 
in the other. 

7th. Breeding in-and-in, or propagating from animals nearly 
allied, may be tolerated under certain circumstances, though 
seldom ; and only in extreme cases between those of the same 
generation, as brother and sister. When the animal possesses 
much stamina and peculiar merit, which it is desired to per- 
petuate in the breed, it may be done either, in the ascending or 
descending line, as in breeding the son to the parent, or the 
parent to his own progeny. This has been practised with de- 
cided advantage, and in some cases has even been continued 
successively, as low as the sixth generation. 

8th. It is always better to avoid close relationship, by the 
selection of equally meritorious stock-getters of the same breed, 
from other sources. 

9th. Wholesome, nutritious food, at all times sufficient to 
keep the animals steadily advancing, should be provided, but 
they must never be allowed to get fat. Of the two evils., 
starving is preferable to surfeit. Careful treatment, and the 
absence of disease, must be always fully considered. 

10th. Animals should never be allowed to breed either too 
early or too late ir life. These periods cannot be arbitrarily 



GENERAL FORM AND CHARACTERISTICS. 1 O 

laid down, but must depend on their time of maturity, the 
longevity of the breed, and the stamina of the individual. 

11th. No violent cross, or mixing of distinct breeds, should 
ever be admitted for the purposes of perpetuation, as of cattle 
of diverse sizes ; horses of unlike characters ; the Merino and 
the long-- wools, or even the long, or short, and the middle-wools. 
For carcass and constitution, these crosses are unexceptiona- 
ble ; and it is a practice very common in this country, and 
judicious enough where the whole produce is early destined 
for the shambles. But when the progeny are designed for 
breeders, the practice should be branded with unqualified 
reprehension. 



GENERAL FORM AND CHARACTERISTICS. 

Within certain limits, these may be reduced to a common 
standard. All animals should have a good head, well set up ; 
a clean fine muzzle, and a bright, clear and full, yet per- 
fectly placid eye. With the exception of the dog and cat, 
whose original nature is ferocity, and whose whole life, un- 
less diverted from their natural instincts, is plunder and 
prey ; and the jockey racehorse, which is required to take 
the purse, at any hazard of life or limb to the groom ; a mild, 
quiet eye is indispensable to the profitable use of the domes- 
tic brute. The neck should be well formed, not too long, 
tapering to its junction with the head, and gradually enlarg- 
ing to a firm, well-expanded attachment to the back, shoulders, 
and breast. The back or chine should be short, straight, and 
broad ; the ribs springing out from the backbone nearly at 
right angles, giving a rounded appearance to the carcass, 
and reaching well behind to a close proximity to the hip ; 
tail well set on, and full at its junction with the body, yet 
gradually tapering to fineness ; thighs, fore-arms, and crops 
well developed ; projecting breast or brisket ; the fore-legs 
straight, and hind ones properly bent, strong and full where 
attached to the carcass, but small and tapering below ; good 
and sound joints ; dense, strong bones, but not large ; plenty 
of fine muscle in the right places ; and hair or wool, fine and 
soft. The chest in all animals should be full, for it will be in- 
variably found, that only such will do the most work, or fat- 
ten easiest on the leas> A food. 

2 



\4. DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



The Lungs. 



From the last-mentioned principle, founded on long ex- 
perience and observation, Cline inferred, and he has laid it 
down as an incontrovertible position, that the lungs should 
always be large ; and Youatt expresses the same opinion. 
This is undoubtedly correct as to working beasts, the horse 
and the ox, which require full and free respiration, to enable 
them to sustain great muscular efforts. But later physiolo- 
gists have assumed, perhaps from closer and more accurate 
observations, that the fattening propensity is in the ratio of 
the smallness of the lungs. Earl Spencer has observed, that 
this is fully shown in the pig, the sheep, the ox, and the 
horse, whose aptitude to fatten and smallness of lungs, are in 
the order enumerated. 

This position is further illustrated by the different breeds of 
the same classes of animals. The Leicester sheep have 
smaller lungs than the South Down; and it has been found, 
that a number of the former, on a given quantity of food, 
and in the same time, reached 28 lbs. a quarter, while the 
South Downs with a greater consumption of food, attained in 
the same period, only 18 lbs. The Chinese pigs have much 
smaller lungs than the Irish, and the former will fatten to a 
given weight, on a much less quantity of food than the latter. 
(Play fair.) The principle would seem to be corroborated by 
the fact, that animals generally fatten faster in proportion to 
the quantity of food they consume, as they advance towards 
a certain stage of maturity ; during all which time, the secre- 
tion of internal fat is gradually compressing the size, by re- 
ducing the room for the action of the lungs. Hence, the 
advantage of carrying the fattening beast to an advanced 
point, by which not only the quality of carcass is improved, 
but the quantity is relatively greater for the amount of food 
consumed. These views are intimately connected, and fully 
correspond, with the principles of 



RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS. 

From careful experiments, it has been found that all ani- 
mals daily consume a much larger quantity of food than the 
aggregate of what may have been retained in the system, 
added to what has been expelled in the foeces and urine, and 



RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS. 15 

what has escaped by perspiration. Boussingault, who com- 
bines the characteristics of an ingenious chemist, a vigilant 
observer, and a practical agriculturist, made an experiment 
with a " milch-cow and a full-grown horse, which were placed 
in stalls so contrived that the droppings and the urine could 
be collected without loss. Before being made the subjects of 
experiment, the animals were ballasted or fed for a month 
with the same ration that was furnished to them, during the 
three days and three nights which they passed in the ex- 
perimental stalls. During the month, the weight of the ani- 
mals did not vary sensibly, a circumstance which happily en- 
ables us to assume that neither did the weight vary during 
the seventy-two hours when they were under especial obser- 
vation. 

The cow was foddered with after-math, hay, and potatoes ; 
the horse with the same hay and oats. The quantities of 
forage were accurately weighed, and their precise degree of 
moistness and their composition were determined from average 
samples. The water drunk was measured, its saline and earthy 
constituents having been previously ascertained. The excre- 
mentitious matters passed, were of course collected with the 
greatest care ; the excrements, the urine, and the milk were 
weighed, and the constitution of the whole estimated from 
elementary analyses of average specimens of each. The re- 
sults of the two experiments are given in the table on the next 
page. 

The oxygen and hydrogen that are not accounted for in 
the sum of the products have not disappeared in the precise 
proportions requisite to form water ; the excess of hydrogen 
amounts to as many as from 13 to 15 dwts. It is probable 
that this hydrogen of the food became changed into water by 
combining during respiration with the oxygen of the air." 



16 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



FOOD CONSUMED BY THE HORSE IN 24 HOURS. 



Forage. 



Hay. . 

Oats . . 

Water . 

Total 



Weight in 
the. wet 
state. 



Weight ii 
the dry 



7 11 
2 7 



Elementary Matter in the Food. 



Hydrogen. 

lb. oz dwt 

10 7 
3 18 



Oxygo 



lb. oz. dwt. 
6 8 8 
1 10 14 



Azote 




lb. 


2 J - 


■ i 





a 


i 





l 


7 





4 


9 



Salts and 
Earths. 



lb. 


oz. dwt. 


1 


6 


14 


1) 


\i 


10 








a 



PRODUCTS VOIDED Bl 


THE HORSE IN 


24 HOURS. 






Weight in 
the wet 
stata. 


Weight in 
the dry 
state. 


Elementary Matter in the Products. 


Products. 


Carbon. 


Hydrogen. 


Oxygen. 


Azote. 


Salts and 
Earths. 


Uiine 

Excrements .... 


lb. oz. dwt. 
3 6 15 
38 2 2 


lb. oz. dwi 
9 9 14 

9 5 6 
10 3 
22 6 


lb. oz. Uwt. 
3 10 
3 7 17 
3 11 7 

10 6 


lb. oz. dwt. 
7 
5 15 

6 2 

1 2 5 
1 8 3 


lb. oz. dwt. 
1 2 
3 6 14 


lb. oz. dwt. 
1 4 

2 10 


lb. oz. dwt. 

3 10 

1 6 10 


Total 

Total matter of ) 
the food J * 


71 8 17 
69 


3 7 16 
8 7 2 


3 14 

4 9 


1 10 C 
1 9 IS 


Difference 


27 3 3 


12 3 


6 6 13 


4 11 6 


15 


8 



WATER CONSUMED BY THE HORSE 

IN 24 HOURS. 



WATER VOIDED B\ THE HORSE 

IN 24 HOURS. 



With the hay . 
With the oats . 
Taken as drink 



Total consumed 



With the urine . . 
With the excrements 



Total voided . 
Water consumed . 



Water exhaled by pulmonary and cutaneous transpiration 



lbs. 
2 
2 1 ? 


oz. 
6 
8 


l5~ 

38 


4 


12 


6 



FOOD CONSUMED BY THE COW IN 24 HOURS. 



Weight in 
the wet 
state. 



Potatoes 

After-math hay . . 
Water 


40 2 5 
20 1 2 
160 


Total 


220 3 7 



W 


eight in 
le dry 
state. 


t 


lb. 
11 

16 


oz. dwt. 
2 1 
11 


28 


1 1 



Elementary Matter in the Food. 



z. dwt. 
11 2 
il 11 



Hydrogen. 



lb. 


oz dwt. 





7 


15 





11 


7 



12 10 13| 1 7 



Oxygen. 




PRODUCTS VOIDED BY THE COW IN 24 HOURS. 



Products. 


Weight in 
the wet 
state. 


Excrements .... 

Urine 

Milk. ...... 

Total 

" matter of food 


lb. oz. dwt. 
76 1 9 

21 11 12 

22 10 10 
120 11 11 
220 3 7 


Difference 


99 3 16 



Weight in 
the dry 
state. 


lb. 

10 
2 
3 


oz. dwt. 
8 12 
6 17 
1 


16 


4 9 
1 1 


11 


8 12 



Elementary Matter in the Products. 



Carbo 




lb. 


oz. dwt. 


4 


7 








8 


7 


1 


8 


3 


6 


11 


10 


12 


10 


13 


5 


11 


3 



Hydrogen. Oxygen 



lb. 





oz. dwt. 
6 13 
16 
3 3 




1 


10 12 
7 2 



lb. 
4 





oz .dwt. 
9 
8 3 

10 6 


5 

10 


6 18 
9 14 



Salts and 
Earths. 



lb. 


oz. dwt. 


1 


3 8 


1 


6 





1 16 


2 


5 10 


2 


4 11 



WATER CONSUMED BY THE COW 
IN 24 HOURS. 



With th; potatoes 

With the hay . . 

Taken as drink . 

Total consumed 



lbs. 
23 


12 


2 


9 


132 





158 


5 



WATER VOIDED BY THE COW 
IN 24 HOURS. 



With the excrements 
With the urine . . 
With the milk. . . 

Total voided . . 
Water consumed . 



Water paswd off by pulmonary and cutaneous transpiration 



lbs. 


oz. 


53 


10 


15 


14 


16 


a 


85 


n 


158 


5 


78 


o 



THE EFFECTS OF RESPIRATION. 17 

We here perceive a large loss of water, carbon, hydrogen, 
&c. Nearly all this loss of carbon and hydrogen escaped by 
respiration, while most of the water, oxygen, nitrogen, and 
sahs, passed off in perspiration. In further illustration of the 
subject of respiration, Liebig says, " from the accurate deter- 
mination of the quantity of carbon daily taken into the system 
in the food, as well as of that proportion of it which passes out 
of the body in the fceces and urine, unhurried, that is, in some 
form uncombined with oxygen, it appears that an adult taking- 
moderate exercise, consumes 13.9 oz. of carbon daily." The 
foregoing are facts in the animal economy, capable of vast 
practical bearing in the management of our domestic ani- 
mals. But before following out these principles to their ap- 
plication, let us briefly examine 

The Effects of Rc&piration. 

We have seen from the experiment of Boussingault. that 
there is a loss of 6 lbs. 6 oz. of carbon, and 8 oz. 3 dwt. ol 
hydrogen in the food of the horse, and something less in that 
of the cow, every 24 hours, which has not been left in the 
system, nor has it escaped by the evacuations. What has 
become of so large an amount of solid matter ? It has escaped 
through the lungs and been converted into air. The carbon 
and hydrogen of the food have undergone those various trans- 
formations which are peculiar to the animal economy, diges- 
tion, assimilation, &c, which it is not necessary, nor will our 
limits permit us here to explain ; and they appear at last in 
the veinous blood, which in the course of its circulation is 
brought into the cells of the lungs. The air inhaled is sent 
through every part of their innumerable meshes, and is there 
separated from the blood, only by the delicate tissues or mem- 
branes which enclose it. A portion of the carbon and hydro- 
gen escapes from the blood into the air-cells, and at the instant 
of their contact with the air, they affect a chemical union with 
its oxygen, forming carbonic acid and the vapor oT water, 
which is then expired, and a fresh supply of oxygen is inhaled. 
This operation is again repeated, through every successive 
moment of animal existence. 

Besides other purposes which it is probably designed to 
subserve, but which have hitherto eluded the keenest research 
of chemical physiology, one obvious result of respiration is, 
the elevation of the temperature of the animal system. By 
the ever-operating laws of nature, this chemical union of twa 

2* 



18 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

bodies in the formation of a third, disengages latent heat, 
which taking place in contact with the blood, is by it diffused 
throughout the whole frame. The effect is precisely analogous 
to the combustion of fuel, oils, &c, in the open air. 

Perspiration. 

Is the counteracting agent which modifies this result, and 
prevents the injurious effects, which, under exposure to great 
external heat, would ensure certain destruction. And this too, 
it will have been seen, is provided at the expense of the animal 
food. When from excessive heat, caused by violent exercise 
or otherwise, by which respiration is accelerated and the ani- 
mal temperature becomes elevated, the papillae of the skin 
pour the limpid fluid through their innumerable ducts, which 
in its conversion into vapor, seize upon the animal heat and 
remove it from the system, producing that delicious coolness 
so grateful to the laboring man and beast in a sultry summer's 
day. These two opposing principles, like the antagonistic 
Dperations of the regulator in mechanics, keep up a perfect 
balance in the vital machine, and enable that entire division of 
the animal creation, distinguished as warm-blooded, including 
man and the brute, all the feathered tribes, the whale, the 
seal, the walrus, &c, to maintain an equilibrium of temperature, 
whether under the equator or the poles; on the peaks of 
Chimbora'zo, the burning sands of Zahara, or plunged in the 
depths of the Arctic Ocean. 

The connection between the size of the lungs, and the apti- 
tude of animals to fatten, will be more apparent from the fact, 
that the carbon and hydrogen which are abstracted, constitute 
two of the only three elements of fat. The larger size, the 
fuller play, and the greater activity of the lungs, by exhausting 
more of the materials of fat, must necessarily diminish its 
formation in the animal system ; unless it can be shown, which 
has never yet been done, that the removal of a portion of the 
fat-forming principles accelerates the assimilation of the re- 
mainder. 

The Food which supplies Respiration. 

This, in the herbiverous animals, after they are deprived of 
the milk, which furnishes it in abundance, m the starch, gum, 
sugar, vegetable fats, and oils that exist in the vegetables, 
grain, and roots which they consume; and in certain cases 



CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH AUGMENT RESPIRATION. 19 

where there is a deficiency of other food, it is sparingly fur- 
nished in woody and cellular fibre. All these substances con- 
stitute the principal part of dry vegetable food, and are made 
up of three elements, which in starch, gum, cane-sugar, and 
cellulur fibre, exist in precisely the same proportions, viz: 44 per 
cent, of carbon, 6.2 of hydrogen, and 49.8 of oxygen. 

Grape sugar, woody fibre, and vegetable and animal fats 
and oils are made up of the same elements, but in different 
proportions, the last containing much more carbon and hydro- 
gen than those above specified. In the fattening animals, it is 
supposed the vegetable fats and oils are immediately trans- 
ferred to the fat cells, undergoing only such slight modifica- 
tion as perfectly adapts them to the animal economy, while 
respiration is supplied by the other enumerated vegetable 
matters. If these last are taken into the stomach beyond the 
necessary demand for its object, they too are converted by the 
animal functions into fat, and are stored up in the system for 
future use. But if the supply of the latter is insufficient for 
respiration, it first appropriates the vegetable fat contained in 
the food ; if this is deficient, it draws on the accumulated 
stores of animal fat already secreted in the system, and when 
these too are exhausted, it seizes upon what is contained in 
the tissues and muscle. When the animal commences drawing 
upon its own resources for the support of its vital functions, 
deterioration begins ; and if long continued, great emaciation 
succeeds, which is soon followed by starvation and death. 

The carniverous animals are furnished with their respiratory 
excretions, from the animal fat and fibre which exist in their 
food, and which the herbivoree had previously abstracted from 
the vegetable creation. 

Circumstances which augment Respiration. 

These are, exercise, cold, and an abundant supply of food. 
Exercise, besides exhausting the materials of fat, produces a 
waste of fibre and tissue, the muscular and nitrogenized parts 
of the animal system ; and it is obvious from the foregoing 
principles, that cold requires a corresponding demand for car- 
bon and hydrogen to keep up the vital warmth. The con- 
sumption of food to the fullest extent required for invigorating 
the frame, creates a desire for activity, and it insensibly indu- 
ces full respiration. The well-fed, active man, unconsciously 
draws a full, strong breath ; while the abstemious and the 
feeble, unwittingly use it daintily, as if it were a choice com- 



20 DOMESTIC ANIMALS-. 

modity not to be lavishly expended. If the first be observed 
when sleep has effectually arrested volition, the expanded 
chest will be seen, heaving with the long-drawn, sonorous 
breath ; while that of the latter will exhibit the gentle repose 
of the infant on its mother's breast. 

The difference between the food of the inhabitants of the 
polar and equatorial regions, is strikingly illustrative of the 
demands both for breathing and perspiration. The latter are 
almost destitute of clothing, and subsist on their light, juicy, 
tropical fruits, which contain scarcely 12 per cent, of carbon, 
yet furnish all the elements for abundant perspiration ; while 
the former are imbedded in furs, and devour gallons of train 
oil or its equivalent of fat, which contains nearly 80 per cent, 
of carbon, that is burnt up in respiration to maintain a neces- 
sary warmth. 

The bear retires to his den in the beginning of winter, load- 
ed with fat, which he has accumulated from the rich, oily 
mast abounding in the woods in autumn. There he lies for 
months, snugly coiled and perfectly dormant ; the thickness 
of his shaggy coat, his dry bed of leaves, and well-protected 
den, effectually guarding him from cold, which in addition to 
his want of exercise, draw slightly upon respiration to keep up 
the vital heat. When the stores of carbon and hydrogen con- 
tained in the fat are expended, his hunger and cold compel 
him to leave his winter-quarters, again to wander in pursuit 
of food. 

Many of the swallow tribes, in like manner, hybernate in 
large hollow trees, and for months eke out a torpid, scarcely 
perceptible existence, independent of food. Activity and full 
respiration, on the return of spring, demand a support, which 
is furnished in the myriads of flies they daily consume. The 
toad and frog have repeatedly been found in a torpid state, 
imbedded in limestones, sandstones, and the breccias, where 
they were probably imprisoned for thousands of years without 
a morsel of food ; yet when exposed to the warmth of the 
vital air and the stimulus of its oxygen, they have manifested 
all the activity of their species. This they are enabled to 
sustain only by an enormous consumption of insects. 

Dr. Playfair states, that in an experiment made by Lord 
Ducie, 100 sheep were placed in a shed, and ate 20 pounds of 
Swedes turnips each per day ; another 100 were placed in the 
open air, and ate 25 pounds per day ; yet the former, which 
had one-fifth less food, weighed, after a few weeks, thiee 
pounds more per head than the latter. He then fed five sh.xp 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. 21 

in the open air, between the 21st November and 1st Decem- 
ber. They consumed 90 pounds of food per day, the tem- 
perature being at 44°, and at the end of this time, they 
weighed two pounds less than when first exposed. Five sheep 
were then placed under a shed, and allowed to run about in a 
temperature of 49°. At first they consumed 82 pounds per 
day ; then 70 pounds, and at the end of the time they had 
gained 23 pounds. Again, five sheep were placed under a 
shed as before, and not allowed to take any exercise. They 
ate at first, 64 pounds of food per day, then 58 pounds, and 
increased in weight 30 pounds. Lastly, five sheep were kept 
quiet and covered, and in the dark. They ate 35 pounds per 
day, and increased eight pounds. 

Mr. Childers states, that 80 Leicester sheep in the open 
field, consumed 50 baskets of cut turnips per day, besides oil- 
cake. On putting them in a shed, they were immediately able 
to consume only 30 baskets, and soon after but 25, being only 
half the quantity required before, and yet they fattened as 
rapidly as when eating the largest quantity. The minimum of 
food, then, required for the support of animals, is attained 
when closely confined in a warm, dark shelter ; and the maxi- 
mum, when running at large, exposed to all weathers. 

THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. 

This should be regulated by a variety of considerations. 
The young which may be destined for maturity, should be 
supplied with milk from the dam until weaning-time. No 
food can be substituted for the well-filled udder of the parent, 
which is so safe, healthful, and nutritious. If from any cause 
there is deficiency or total privation, it must be made up by 
that kind of food, meal-gruel, &c, which, in its composition, 
approaches nearest in quality to the milk. At a more ad- 
vanced age, or the time for weaning, grass, hay, roots, or grain, 
may be substituted, in quantities sufficient to maintain a steady 
but not a forced growth. Stuffing can only be tolerated in an- 
imals which are speedily destined for the slaughter. Alter- 
nately improving and falling back, is injurious to all stock. 
An animal should never be fat but once. Especially is high 
feeding bad for breeding animals. Much as starving is to be 
deprecated, the prejudicial effects of repletion are still greater. 
The calf or lamb intended for the butcher, may be pushed for- 
ward with all possible rapidity. Horses or colts should nevei 
exceed a good working or breeding condition. 



£tt DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



Purposes fulfilled by different JLinds of Food. 

The objects designed to be answered by food, are to a cer- 
tain extent the same. All food is intended to meet the de- 
mands of respiration and nutrition, and fattening to a greater 
or less degree. But some are better suited to one object than 
others, and it is for the intelligent farmer to select such as 
will most effectually accomplish his particular purposes. 

The very young animal requires large quantities of the phos- 
phate of lime for the formation of bone ; and this is yielded in 
the milk in larger proportions than from any other food. The * 
growing animal wants bone, muscle, and a certain amount of 
fat, and these are procured from the grasses, roots, and grain ; 
from the former when fed alone, and from the two latter when 
mixed with hay or grass. 

Horses, cattle, and sheep need hay to qualify the too wa- 
tery nature of the roots, and the too condensed nutritiveness 
of the grain. Animals that are preparing for the shambles, 
require vegetable oils or fat, starch, sugar, or gum. The first 
is contained in great abundance in flax and cotton-seed, the 
sun-flower, and many other of the mucilaginous seeds. Indian 
corn is the most fattening grain. The potato contains the 
greatest proportion of starch, and the sugar-beet has large 
quantities of sugar, and both consequently are good for stall- /> 
feeding. The ripe sugar-cane is perhaps the most fattening of ^\f- 
vegetables, if we except the oily seeds and grain. The(Swedes 
turnipjis a good food to commence with fattening cattle and 
sheep ; but where great ripeness in animals is desired, they 
should be followed with beets, carrots or potatoes, and grain. 

The table of the average composition of the different crops, 
which we subjoin from Johnston, shows the comparative qual- 
ities of various kinds of food, and it will be found a valuable 
reference for their nutritive and fattening qualities. He says, 
" In drawing up this table, I have adopted the proportions of 
gluten, for the most part, from Boussingault. Some of them, 
however, appear to be very doubtful. The proportions of fatty 
matter are also very uncertain. With a few exceptions, those 
above given have been taken from Sprengel, and they are, in 
general, stated considerably too low. It is an interesting fact, 
that the proportion of fatty matter in and immediately under 
the husk of the grains of corn, is generally much greater than 
in the substance of the corn itself. Thus I have found the 
pollard of wheat to yield more than twice as much oil as the 



UF DIFFERENT K1NE3 OF FOOD. 23 

fine flour obtained from the same sample of grain. The four 
portions separated by the miller from a superior sample of 
wheat grown in the neighborhood of Durham, gave of oil re- 
spectively : fine flour, 1"5 per cent. ; pollard, 2*4 ; boxings, 3*6 ; 
and bran, 3 "3 per cent. Dumas states that the husk of oats 
sometimes yields as much as five or six per cent, of oil." The 
columns under starch, &c, and fatty matter, denote the valuo 
for respiration or sustaining life, and the fattening qualities ; 
that under gluten, the capacity for yielding muscle and sup- 
porting labor ; and saline matter indicates something of the 
proportions which are capable of being converted into bones. 

Husk or Starch, Gluten, al- 

Water. woody gum, and burner), le- Fatty Saline 

fibre. sugar. gumen, &c. matter. matter 

Wheat, . . . 16 15 55 10 to 15 2 to 4 J. 2-0 

Barley, ... 15 15 60 12? 25 J. 2-0 

Oats, .... 16 20 50 14-5? 56 J. 3-5 

Rye, .... 12 10 60 14-5 3-0- 1-0 

Indian corn- .14 15? 50 12 5 to 9 D. 1-5 

Buckwheat, .16? 25? 50 14-5 0-4? 1-5 

Beans, . .16 10 40 28-0 2 + 3-0 

Peas, .... 13 8 50 24-0 2-8? 2-8 

Potatoes, . . 75? 5? 12? 2-25 0-3 0-8 to 1 

Turnips, ... 85 3 10 1-2 ? 0-8 to 1 

Carrots, ... 85 3 10 2-0 0-4 1-0 

Meadow hay, . 14 30 40 7-1 2 to 5 D. 5 to 10 

Clover hay, . 14 25 40 93 3-0 9 

Pea straw, . 10 to 15 25 45 12-3 1-5 5 

Oat do. . . 12 45 35 1-3 0-8 6 

Wheat do. . 12 to 15 50 30 1-3 0-5 5 

Barley do. . . do. 50 30 1-3 0-8 5 

Rye do. . . do. 45 38 1-3 0-5 3 

Indian corn do. 12 25 52 3-0 1-7 4 

This table, it will be perceived, is far from settling the 
'precise relative value of the different enumerated articles. An 
absolute, unchanging value can never be assumed of any 
one substance, as the quality of each must differ with the 
particular variety, the soil upon which it is grown, the charac- 
ter of the season, the manner of curing, and other circum- 
stances. An approximate relative value :s all that can be ex- 
pected, and this we may hope ere long to obtain, from the 
spirit of analytical research, which is now developed and it 
successful progress. More especially do we need these inves- 
tigations with American products, some of which are but par- 
tially cultivated in Europe, whence we derive most of om 
analyses, And many which are there reared, differ widely 



24 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

from those produced here, as these also differ from each 
other. What, for instance, is the character of meadow hay ? 
We know that this varies as four to one, according to the 
particular kinds grown ; and our Indian corn has certainly a 
less range than from five to nine. 



The Changes in the Food of Animals. 

Potatoes, when first ripe, are estimated to be worth, for 
feeding purposes, nearly twice as much as when old ; and the 
relative value of the different kinds, varies greatly at the 
same age and under similar conditions of growth. Perrault 
ascertained by careful experiment, that hay, clover, and lucerne 
lost much of their nutritive qualities by drying, and in lucerne 
this loss amounted to about thirty-five per cent. This is 
an important consideration in the feeding of green and dry 
forage. Oats are among the best feed, both for young and 
working animals ; but it has been found that they are greatly 
improved for the latter, and perhaps for both, by allowing 
the new crop to remain till the latter part of winter, before 
feeding. 

The improvement by steaming and cooking food, is seldom 
sufficiently appreciated. Food properly managed, can never 
be made worse by cooking for any stock ; although it has not 
been considered so essential for working, and generally, for 
ruminating animals, as for swine, and such as were stall- 
feeding. But the alteration produced in cooking, by fitting it 
for a more ready assimilation, must, as a general rule, add 
much to the value of the food, and the rapid improvement of 
the animal. 

The effect of slight fermentation, or souring the food, pro- 
duces the same result. Animals accustomed to this acid food, 
will reject what is unprepared when they can get at the 
former ; and we have no doubt, from our own experience, that 
there is a saving in thus preparing it, from 20 to 40 per cent. 
A mixture of food should be supplied to all animals. Like 
man, they tire of any constant aliment. For such, especially, 
as are fattening, and which it is desirable to mature with the 
greatest rapidity, a careful indulgence of their appetite should 
be studied. They should be provided with whatever they 
most crave, if it be adapted to the secretion of fat. Cutting, 
crushing, and grinding the food ; cooking, souring, and mix- 
in** it, are each by themselves an improvement for feeding ; 



THE PROFIT OF FEEDING. 25 

and frequently two or more of these prepaiations combined, 
are of great utility in effecting the object proposed. 

The Profit of Feeding. 

It is evident, that this consists in a valuable return from 
the animal of the food consumed. In the horse, this can 
only be received in labor or breeding ; in the ox, from labor 
and flesh ; in the cow, from the milk, the flesh, and her 
young. In the sheep, it may be returned in its fleece, its 
carcass, or its progeny ; and in the swine only by its progeny 
and flesh. The manure we expect from all ; and if this be 
not secured and judiciously used, few animals about the farm 
will be found to yield a satisfactory profit for their food and 
attention ; though it is evident, it should form but a small 
part of the return looked for. 

Animals are only profitable to the farmer, when they yield 
a daily income, as in their milk or labor ; or annually, by their 
young or fleece ; unless it be in a course of regular improve- 
ment, either in their ordinary growth or preparation for the 
butcher. The animal must consume a certain amount of food 
merely to keep up its stationary condition, and to supply the 
materials for waste, respiration, perspiration, and the evacu- 
ations. These must first be provided for in all cases, before 
the farmer can expect any thing for the food. 

Frequent observation has shown, that an ox will consume 
about two per cent, of his weight of hay per day, to maintain 
his condition. If put to moderate labor, an increase of this 
quantity to three per cent., will enable him to perform his 
work, and still maintain his flesh. If to be fattened, he re- 
quires about 4J per cent, of his weight daily, in nutritious 
food. A cow to remain stationary and give no milk, eats two 
per cent, of her weight daily ; and if in milk, she will consume 
three per cent. If these statements are correct, which it is 
certain they are in principle, though they may not be entirely 
in degree, it will require the same food to keep three yoke of 
cattle in idleness, as two at work ; and the food of every two 
that are idle, will nearly support one under the most rapid 
condition of fatting. Two cows may be kept in milk, with the 
same feed that will keep three without. 

No practice is more impolitic, than barely to sustain the 
stock through the winter, or a part of the year, as is the case 
in too many instances, and allow them to improve only when 
tu**ned on grass in summer. Besides subjecting them to the 

3 



20 UOMEST..C ANIMALS. 

risk of disease, consequent upon their privation >f food, nearly 
half the year is lost in their use, or in maturing them for prof- 
itable disposal ; when if one-third of the stock had been sold, 
the remainder would have been kept in a rapidly improving con- 
dition, and at three years of age, they would probably be oi 
equal value, as otherwise at five or six. It is true that breed 
has much to do with this rapid advancement, but breed is 
useless without food to develop and mature it, 



CHAPTER II 



NEAT OR HORNED CATTLE. 



The value of our neat cattle exceeds that of any other of 
the domestic animals in the United States. They are as widely 
disseminated, and more generally useful. Like sheep and all 
our domestic brutes, they have been so long and so entirely 
subject to the control of man, that their original type is un- 
known. They have been allowed entire freedom from all hu- 
man direction or restraint for hundreds of years, on the bound- 
less pampas of South America, California, and elsewhere; 
but when permitted to resume that natural condition, by which 
both plants and animals approximate to the character ©f their 
original head, they have scarcely deviated in any respect, 
from the domestic herds from which they are descended. 
From this it may be inferred, that our present races do not 
differ, in any of their essential features and characteristics, 
from the original stock. 

Various Domestic Breeds. 

Cultivation, feed, and climate, have much to do in deter- 
mining the form, size, and character of cattle. In Lithuania, 
cattle attain an immense size, with but moderate pretensions 
to general excellence, while the Irish Kerry and Scotch 
Grampian cows but little exceed the largest sheep ; yet the 
last are compact and well-made, and yield a good return for 
the food consumed. Every country, and almost every district, 
lias its peculiar breeds, which by long association have become 
udanted to the food and circumstances of its position, and 



JAa.V*, JA1TLE. 27 

when found profitable, they should be exchanged for others, 
only after the most thorough trial of superior fitness for the 
particular location, in those proposed to be introduced. 

More attention has been paid to the improvement of the va- 
rious breeds of cattle in England, than in any other country* 
and it is there they have attained the greatest perfection h? 
form and character for the various purposes to which they are- 
devoted. We have derived, directly from Great Britain, not 
only the parent stock from which nearly all our cattle are de- 
scended, but also most of those fresh importations, to winch 
we have looked for improvement on the present race of animals. 

A few choice Dutch cattle, generally black and white, and 
of large size, good forms, and good milkers, with a decided 
tendency to fatten, have been occasionally introduced among 
us, but not in numbers sufficient to keep up a distinct breed ; 
and in the hands of their importers, or immediate successors, 
their peculiar characteristics have soon become merged in 
those herds by which they were surrounded. Some few 
French and Spanish cattle, the descendants of those remote 
importations, made when the colonies of those kingdoms held 
possession of our northern, western, and southern frontiers, 
still exist in those sections ; and although possessing no claims 
to particular superiority, at least in any that have come within 
our notice, yet they are so well acclimated, and adapted to 
their various localities, as to render it inexpedient to attempt 
supplanting them, except with such as are particularly meri- 
torious. 

Native Cattle.. 

This is a favorite term with Americans, and comprehends 
every thing in the country, excepting such as are of a pure and 
distinct breed. It embraces some of the best, some of the 
worst, and some of almost every variety, shape, color, and 
character of the bovine race. The designation has no farther 
meaning, than that they are indigenous to the soil, and do not 
belong to any well-defined or distinct variety. 

The best native cattle of the Union are imdoubtedly to be 
found in the Northeastern states. Most of the early emigrant 
cattle in that section were from the southern part of England, 
where the Devon cattle abound ; and though not at the pres- 
ent time bearing a close resemblance to that breed, unless it 
has been impressed upon them by more recent importations, 
yet a large number have that general approximation in char- 
acter, features, and color, which entitles them to claim a near 



28 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

kindred with one of the choicest cultivated breeds. They have 
the same symmetry, but not in general the excessive delicacy 
©f form, which characterizes the Devons ; the same intelli- 
gence, activity, and vigor in the working cattle, and the same 
tendency to fattening ; but they are usually better for the dairy 
than their imported ancestors. Some valuable intermixtures 
have occasionally been made among them. Ajpong these, 
there have been many brindled cattle widely disseminated, of 
great merit as workers, and not often surpassed for the dairy 
and shambles. 

The Herefords have in a few instances been introduced among 
the eastern cattle, and apparently with great improvement. 
The importation made by Admiral Coffin, of four choice Here- 
ford bulls and cows, which were presented to the State Agri- 
cultural Society of Massachusetts, nearly thirty years since, is 
especially to be mentioned, as resulting in decided benefit 
wherever they were disseminated. Some of the old Yorkshire, 
or as they are sometimes styled, the long-horned Durhams, 
have been introduced, though these have been isolated indi- 
viduals and never perpetuated as a separate breed. A few 
small importations have been made of the Short Horns and 
Ayrshires, but neither of these have been bred in the New 
England states in distinct herds, to any extent. 

Their native breed ha.s hitherto, and generally with good 
reason, possessed claims on the attention of their owners, 
which, with some slight exceptions, it has not been in the 
power of any rivals to supplant. With entire adaptedness to 
the soil, climate, and wants of the farmer, an originally good 
stock has, in frequent instances, been carefully fostered, and 
the breeding animals selected with a strict reference to their 
fitness for perpetuating the most desirable qualities. As a 
consequence of this intelligent and persevering policy, widely, 
but not universally pursued, they have a race of cattle, though 
possessing considerable diversity of size and color, yet coinci- 
ding in a remarkable degree in the possession of those utilita- 
rian features, which so justly commend them to our admiration. 

In proceeding southwestwardly through New York, New 
Jersey, and elsewhere, we shall find in this branch of stock, a 
greater diversity and less uniform excellence ; though they 
have extensive numbers of valuable animals. Here and there 
will be found a choice collection of some favorite foreign breed, 
which emigrants have brought from their native home, as did 
the Pagan colonists their penates or household gods ; the 
cherished associates of early days, and the only relics of their 



THE DEVON. 29 

father-land. Such are an occasional small herd of polled or 
hornless cattle, originally derived from Suffolk or Galloway, 
excellent both for the dairy and shambles ; the Kyloe, or West 
Highland, (Scottish,) a hardy animal, unrivalled for beef ; the 
Welsh runt; the Irish cattle; the crumpled-horn Alderney, 
and some others. 

The Devon 

Is among the oddest distinctly cultivated breeds in this 
country, as it undoubtedly is of England, and probably it is 
the most universal favorite. This popularity is well deserved, 
and it is based upon several substantial considerations. They 
are beautifully formed, possessing excessive fineness and sym- 
metry of frame, yet with sufficient bone and muscle to render 
them perfectly hardy ; and they are among the most vigorous 
and active of working cattle. They have great uniformity of 
appearance in every feature, size, shape, horns, and color. The 
cows and bulls appear small, but the ox is much larger ; and 
both he and the dam, on cutting up, are found to weigh much 
beyond the estimates which an eye accustomed only to ordi- 
nary breeds, would have assigned to them. The flesh is finely- 
marbled or interspersed with alternate fat and lean, and is of 
superior quality and flavor. 

The cows invariably yield milk of great richness, and when 
appropriately bred, none surpass them for the quantity of 
butter and cheese it yields. Mr. Bloomfield, the manager of 
the late Lord Leicester's estate at Holkham, has, by careful 
attention, somewhat increased the size, without impairing the 
beauty of their form, and so successful has he been in de- 
veloping their milking properties, that his average product of 
butter from each cow, is 4 lbs. per week for the whole year. 
He has challenged England to milk an equal number of cows 
of any breed, against 40 pure Devons, to be selected oat ot 
his own herd, without as yet having found a competitor. Al- 
though this is not a test of their merits, and by no means 
decides their superiority, yet it shows the great confidence 
reposed in them by their owner. The Devon ox, under six 
years old, has come up to a nett dead weight of 1,593 lbs. ; 
and at three years and seven months, to 1,310 lbs., with 160 
lbs. of rough tallow. 

Description. The Devon is of medium size, and so sym- 
metrical, as to appear sma .1. The color is invariably a deep 
mahogany red, with usually a white udder and strip under the 

3* 



30 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

belly ; and the tuft at the end of the tail is red while they 
are calves, but white in the older animal. The head is small, 
broad in the forehead, and somewhat indented. The muzzle 
is delicate, and both the nose and the rings around the eye, in 
the pure breed, are invariably of a bright, clear orange. The 
cheeks and face are thin and fleshless ; the horns clear, smooth, 
and of a yellowish white, handsomely curved upward. The 
neck is small and delicate at its junct.on with the head, but is 
well expanded in its attachment to the breast and shoulders. 
The last has the true slant for activity and strength, in which 
it excels all other breeds of equal weight. The barrel is round 
and deep, with a projecting brisket. The back is broad and 
level ; the flank full ; hips wide ; the rumps long ; the quar- 
ters well developed, and capable of holding a great quantity 
of the most valuable meat. The tail is on a level with the 
back, and gracefully tapers like a drum-stick, to the tuft on 
the end. The legs are of peculiar delicacy and fineness, yet 
possess great strength. The skin is of medium thickness, of a 
rich orange hue, pliable to the touch, and covered with a thick 
coating of fine, soft, curly hair. The Devon is intelligent, 
gentle, and tractable ; is good for milk, and unsurpassed for 
the yoke and for fattening. No animal is better suited to our 
scanty or luxuriant hill pastures than the Devon, and none 
make a better return for the attention and food received. 
They ensure a rapid improvement when mixed with other 
cattle, imparting their color and characteristics in an eminent 
degree. Several importations have been made into this country 
within the last 30 years, of the choicest animals, and though 
not yet numerous in the United States, we possess some of 
the best specimens that exist. 

The Short Horns, or Durhams. 

Are decidedly the most showy among the cattle species. 
They are of all 'colors between a full, deep red, and a pure 
creamy white ; but generally have both intermixed in larger or- 
smaller patches, or intimately blended in a beautiful roan. 
Black, brown, or brindled, are colors not recognised among 
pure-bred Short Horns. Their form is well-spread, symmetri- 
cal, and imposing, and capable of sustaining a large weight of 
valuable carcass. The horn was originally branching and 
turned upward, but now frequently has a downward tendency, 
with the tips pointing towards each other. They are light, 
and comparatively short : clear, highly polished, and waxy. 



THE SHORT HORNS, OR DURHAMS. 



31 



The head is finely formed, with a longer face but not so fine a 
muzzle as the Devon. The neck is delicately formed without 
dewlap, the brisket projecting ; and the great depth and width 




A Short-Horn Bull. 



of the chest giving short, well-spread fore-legs. The crops 
are good ; back and loin broad and flar. • ribs projecting ; 



32 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

deep flank and twist ; tail well set up, strong at the roots and 
tapering. They have a thick covering of soft hair, and are 
mellow to the touch, technically termed, handling well. They 
mature early and rapidly for the quantity of food consumed, 
yielding largely of good beef with little offal. As a breed, 
they arc excellent milkers ; though some families of the Short 
Horns surpass others in this quality. They are inferior to the 
Devons, in their value as working oxen, and in the richness of 
their milk. 

The Short Horns are assigned a high antiquity, by the 
oldest breeders in the counties of Durham and Yorkshire, 
England, the place of their origin, and for a long time, of 
their almost exclusive breeding. From the marked and de- 
cided improvement which they stamp upon other animals, 
they are evidently an ancient breed, though much the juniors 
of the Devon and Hereford. Their highly artificial style, 
form, and character, are unquestionably the work of deeply 
studied and long-continued art ; and to the same degree that 
they have been moulded in unresisting compliance with the 
dictation of their intelligent breeders, have they departed 
from that light and more agile form of the Devon, which con- 
clusively and beyond the possibility of contradiction, marks 
the more primitive race. 



THE IMPORTATION OF SHORT HORNS INTO THIS 
COUNTRY. 

This is claimed to have been previous to 1*783. They arc .he 
reputed ancestors of many choice animals existing in Vir- 
ginia, in the latter part of the last century, and which were 
known as the milk breed ; and some of these, with others 
termed the beef breed, were taken into Kentucky by Mr. Pat- 
ton, as early as 1*797, and their descendants, a valuable race 
of animals, were much disseminated in the West, and known 
as the Pation stock. 

The first authentic importations we have recorded, are 
those of Mr. Heaton, into Westchester, N. Y., in 1*791 and 
'96, from the valuable herds of Messrs. Culley and Colling, 
which consisted of several choice bulls and cows. These 
were frr many years bred pure, and their progeny was widely 
scattered. (American Herd Book.) They were also imported 
into New York, by Mr. Cox, in 1816; by Mr. Bullock, in 
1822 ; by the late Hm. S, Van Rensselaer in 1823 ; and in> 



THE IMPORTATION OF SHORT HORNS. 



33 



mediately after, by Mr. Charles Henry Hall, of Harlem. 
Some small importations were made into Massachusetts be- 
tween 1817 and '25, by several enterprising agriculturists, 
Messrs. Coolidge, Williams, and others ; into Connecticut by 




■m 




~ " 



Short-Horned Cow. 



Mr. Hall and others; into Pennsylvania by Mr. Powell ; and 
into Ohio and some other states, by various individuals earlv 
in the present century. 



34 DOMESTIC ANIMA1S. 

Since the firsj importations, larger accessions from the best 
English herds have been frequently made ; and with the nice 
regard for pedigrees which the introduction of the herd book, 
and careful purity in breeding has produced, the Short Horns 
have become the most extensive pure-bred family of cattle in 
the United States. 

During the speculative times of 1835 to 1840, they brought 
high prices, frequently from $500 to $1000, and sometimes 
more. The following years of financial embarrassment, re- 
duced their market price below their intrinsic value ; but the 
tide is again turning, and the}' are now in demand, but still at 
prices far below their utility and merits. They have from the 
first, been favorites in the rich, corn valleys of the West, their 
early maturity and great weight giving them a preference 
over any other breed! The only drawback to this partiality, 
is their inability, from their form and weight, to reach remote 
eastern markets in good condition ; an objection now in a 
great measure remedied, by the recent remission of duties on 
foreign beef in the English market, which makes them of 
nearly equal value where fed, to pack for exportation. On 
light lands and scanty pastures, they will probably never be 
largely introduced. All heavy animals require full forage 
within a limited compass, so as to fill their stomachs at once, 
and quietly compose themselves to their digestion. 

The weights reached by the Short Horns in England, as 
given by Mr. Berry, have been enormous. Two oxen, six 
years old, weighed nett, 1820 lbs. each. A heifer of three 
years, and fed on grass and hay alone, weighed 1260 lbs. A 
four-year-old steer, fed on hay and turnips only, dressed 1890 
lbs. A cow reached the prodigious weight of 17*78 lbs. A 
heifer, running with her dam, and on pasture alone, weighed 
at seven months, 476 lbs. An ox, seven years old, weighed 
2362 lbs. From their comparatively small numbers in this 
country, most of them have been retained for breeders ; few, 
as yet, have been fattened, and such only as were decidedly 
inferior. Such animals as have been extensively produced by 
crossing this breed upon our former stocks, have given evi- 
dence of great and decided improvement ; and the Short 
Horns, and their grade descendants are destined, at no dis- 
tant day, to occupy a large portion of the richest feeding 
grounds in the United States. 



HEREFORDS. 



35 



Herefords. 

This is the only remaining pure breed, which has hitherto 
occupied the attention of graziers in this country. Like the 
Devons, they ire supposed to be one of the most ancient races 
of British caitle. Marshall gives the following description. 
" The countenance pleasant, cheerful, open ; the forehead 
broad ; eye full and lively ; horns bright, taper, and spread- 
ing ; head small ; chap lean ; neck long and tapering ; chest 
deep ; bosom broad, and projecting forward ; shoulder-bone 
thin, flat, no way protuberant m bone (?) but full and mellow 
in flesh ; chest full ; loin broad ; hips standing wide, and level 
with the chine ; quarters long, and wide at the neck ; rump 
even with the level of the back, and not drooping, nor stand- 
ing high and sharp above the quarters ; tail slender and neatly 
haired ; barrel round and roomy ; the carcass throughout 

Fio-. 3. 




Hereford Cow 

deep and well spread ; ribs broad, standing flat and close on 
the outer surface, forming a smooth, even barrel, the hind- 
most large and full of length ; round-bone small, snug, and 
not prominent; thigh clean, and regularly tapering ; legs up- 
right and short ; bone below the knee and hock small ; feet 



36 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



Fig. 4. 




HEREFORDS. 37 

of middle size ; flank large ; flesh everywhere mellow, soft, 
a.nd yielding pleasantly to ' the touch, especially on the 
J&Aie, the shoulder, and the ribs; hide mellow, supple, of 
a.middle thickness, and loose on the neck and huckle ; coal 
neatly haired, bright and silky ; color, a middle red, with a 
bald face characteristic of the true Herefordshire breed." 

Youatt further describes them as follows : " They are usu- 
ally of a darker red ; some of them are brown, and even yel- 
low, and a few are brindled ; but they are principally distin- 
guished by their white faces, throats, and bellies. In a few 
the white extends to the shoulders. The old Heiefo^ds were 
brown or red-brown, with not a spot of white about ti < m. It 
is only within the last fifty or sixty years that it has been the 
fashion to breed for white faces. Whatever may be thought 
of the change of color, the present breed is certainly far supe- 
rior to the old one. The hide is considerably thicker than that 
of the Devon, and the beasts are more hardy. Compared with 
the Devons, they are shorter in the leg, and also in the carcass ; 
nigher, and broader, and heavier in the chine ; rounder and 
wider across the hips, and better covered with fat ; the thigh 
fuller and more muscular, and the shoulders larger and coarser. 

They are not now much used for husbandry, although their 
form adapts them for the heavier work ; and they have all the 
honesty and docility of the Devon ox, and greater strength, il 
not his activity. The Herefordshire ox fattens speedily at a 
very early age, and it is therefore more advantageous to the 
farmer, and perhaps to the country, that he should go to mar- 
ket at three years old, than be kept longer as a beast of 
draught. 

They are not as good milkers as the Devons. This is so 
generally acknowledged, that while there are many dairies of 
Devon cows in various parts of the country, a dairy of Here- 
fords is rarely to be found. To compensate for this, they are 
even 'more kindly feeders than the Devons. Their beef may 
be oi;pected to by some as being occasionally a little too large 
in the bone, and the fore-qulirters being coarse and heavy ; 
but the meat of the best pieces is often very fine-grained and 
beautifully marbled. There are few cattle more prized in the 
marked than the genuine HeieTords." 

There have been several impoitations of the Herefords into 
the United States, which by crossing with our native cattle, 
have done great good ; but with the exception of a few fine 
animals at the South, we are not aware of their being kept in 
a 'ate of purity, till the importation of the splendid herd,. 

4 



38 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

within the Last' six years, by Messrs. Corning and Sothani of 
Albany, N. Y. These Hereford s are among the very best 
which England can produce, and come up fully to the descrip- 
tion of the choicest of the breed. Mr. Sotham, after an expe- 
rience of several years, is satisfied with the cows for the dairy ; 
and he has given very favorable published statements of the 
results of their milking qualities, from which it may be properly 
inferred, that Youatt drew his estimates from some herds 
which were quite indifferent -in this property. They are pecu- 
liarly the grazier's animal, as they improve rapidly and mature 
early on medium feed. They are excelled for the yoke, if at 
all, only by the Devons, which, in some features, they strongly 
resemble. Both are probably divergent branches of the same 
original stock. 

The Ayrshire 

Is a breed that has been much sought after of late years, 
from their reputation for fine dairy qualities. The milk is good 
both in quantity and quality, yielding, according to a recent 
statement of Mr. Tennant, of Scotland, who owns a large herd, 
fifteen quarts per day during the best of the season, twelve of 
which made a pound of butter. The product of the latter 
averages about 170 pounds per annum to each cow. Another 
authority says, on the best low-land pasture, a good cow yields 
nearly 4000 quarts per year. This is a large quantity, and 
implies good cows and extra feed. 

Mr. Cushing, of Massachusetts, who imported several select 
animals, without regard to their cost, informed us, after three 
or four years' trial, that he did not perceive any superiority in 
them, over the good native cows of that state, for dairy pur- 
poses. A large number have been imported in detached par- 
cels, and scattered through the country. They are good ani- 
mals, but seem to combine no valuable properties in a. higher 
degree than are to be found in our own good cattle, and espe- 
cially such as are produced from a cross of the Short Horn 
bull of a good milking family, on our native cows. They are 
evidently a recent breed, and do not therefore possess that 
uniformity of appearance and quality, which attaches to one of 
long cultivation. 

Mr. Aiton, of Scotland, gives the following account of them-. 
" The dairy breed of Scotland have been formed chiefly by 
skilful management, within the last 50 years ; and they are 
still improving and extending t3 other countries. Till after 



MANAGEMENT OF CALVES. 39 

1*770, the cows in Cunningham were small, ill-fed, ill-shaped, 
and gav r e but little milk. Some cows of a larger breed and of 
a brown and white color, were about that time brought to 
Ayrshire from Teeswater, and from Holland, by some of the 
oatriotic noblemen of Ayrshire ; and these being put on good 
pasture, yielded more milk than the native breed, and their 
calves were much sought after by the farmers." 

We may fairly infer from the foregoing, which is deemed 
indisputable authority ; from the locality of their origin, in 
the neighborhood of the Short Horns ; and from their general 
resemblance, both externally and in their general characteris- 
tics to the grade animals, that they owe their principal excel- 
lence to this long-established breed. 



MANAGEMENT OF CALVES. 

The safest and least troublesome manner of raising calves, 
is at the udder of the dam ; and whenever the milk is con- 
verted into butter and cheese, we believe this to be the most 
economical. The milk of one good cow is sufficient, with a 
run of fresh, sweet pasture, to the feeding of two calves at the 
same time ; and if we allow the calves to arrive at three or 
four months of age before weaning, we may safely estimate, 
that one good cow will yield a quantity of milk in one season, 
fully equivalent to bringing up four calves to a weaning age. 

By keeping the calf on the fresh milk, whether he take it 
directly from the udder, or warm from the pail, all risk of dis- 
ordered bowels is avoided. The milk is precisely adapted to 
the perfect health and thrift of the young, and whenever we 
substitute for it any other food, we must watch carefully that 
not the slightest mismanagement produces disorder, lest more 
is lost by disease or want of improvement, than is gained by 
the milk of which they are robbed. 

The first milk of the cow after calving, is slightly purgative, 
which is essential to cleanse the stomach of the calf. It is, 
moreover, perfectly worthless for two or three days, for any 
other purpose except for swine. The calf will seldom take 
all the milk at first, and whatever is left in the bag should be 
thoroughly removed by the hand. If the calf is destined for 
the butcher, he must have all the milk he wants for at least 
six weeks, and eight or ten is better ; and if the cow does not 
furnish enough, he ought to be fed gruel or linseed tea. He 
must be closely confined in a snug, but clean and airy stable. 



10 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

and the darker this is, and the more quiet he .s kept, the more 
readily he will fatten. 

If designed to be reared, the safest and least troublesome 
method, is to keep the calf on new milk. If saving the milk 
be an object, it is still doubtful whether it is not better that 
he should have a part of it fresh from the cow, and depend 
for his remaining food on a good grass or clover pasture, 
meal, or roots. 

Some farmers never allow the calf to approach the dam, 
but take it when first dropped, and put a handful of salt in its 
mouth, which is daily repeated till he is put to grass. This 
has a purgative effect, similar to the first milk. Flaxseed is 
then prepared, by boiling a pint in four to six quarts of water, 
and diluted with hay tea till it is rather thicker than milk, 
and fed at bio'" 1 heat. 

Hay tea is made, by boiling a pound of sweet, well-cured 
clover, in one and a half gallons of clean water. 

As the calf becomes older, oat, bailey, rye, or Indian meal 
may be scalded and added to the flaxseed. 

When the skim-milk is of little consequence, a better way 
is to withdraw him from the cow after three or four days, 
then scald the milk, adding a little oat meal, and cool to the 
natural temperature of the milk, and feed it. Oats, either 
crushed or ground, is the best and safest grain for all young- 
stock. The milk should not stand more than half a day be- 
fore feeding to young calves. As they advance in age, it may 
be fed rather older, but should never be allowed to become 
sour ; nor should it ever be fed cold. Connected with this 
feed, should be a good range of short, sweet pasture, and 
shelter against both sun and storms. If expedient, at about 
10 weeks old, he may be safely weaned, but four months' 
nursing is better for the calf. 

If allowed too much milk for several months, it is injurious 
to the future development of the young. It does not distend 
the stomach properly, nor call into use its ruminating habits. 
Calves thus brought up, have often proved light-bellied, in- 
different feeders, and decidedly inferior animals. When the 
calf is removed from the cow, they should be effectually sep- 
arated from sight and hearing, as recognition creates uneasi- 
ness, and is an impediment to thrift in both. 

If there be any deficiency of suitable pasture for the calf, a 
small rack and trough should be placed under the shed in his 
range, and fine hay put in the former, and wheat bran or oat 
meal with a little salt in the latter. 



BREEDING. 41 

Diseases and Remedies. 

For disordered hoivels, mix 2 dr. rhubarb, 2 oz. castor oil, 
and \ dr. ginger, with a little warm milk or gruel ; or give 2 
oz. castor oil alone ; or 3 oz. of Epsom salts. 

For scours and diarrhoea, a homely remedy is, to administer 
half a pint of cider, with an equal quantity of blood drawn 
from the calf's neck. 

Or, add a little rennet to its food. 

A good remedy is, 1 oz. powdered canella bark ; 1 oz. laud- 
anum ; 4 oz. prepared chalk ; and one pint water. Mix to- 
gether, and give a wine-glass full or more, according to the 
size of the calf, three times a day. 

Costiveness is removed by giving pork broth. 

Or, give 3 to 4 oz. Epsom salts, dissolved in 3 pints of wa- 
ter, injected into the stomach; and repeat part of this dose 
every 3 or 4 hours, till the desired effect is produced. 

Calves, like all young stock, should be allowed to change 
their feed gradually, from new milk to skimmed, or from the 
latter to other food. Their stomachs are delicate, and need 
gentle, moderate changes, when necessary to make them at 
all. Much depends on the care and attention they receive. It 
is well to have a little resin within its reach. 

A comfortable shelter, with a dry, warm bed, suitable food, 
regularly given three times a day, at blood heat, and keeping 
the stomach in proper order, will do much to bring them for- 
ward rapidly, and with a small expenditure of food. 

The calf requires to be supplied through the winter with an 
abundance of fine, sweet hay and roots, the latter either chop- 
ped or mashed by a roller, with the addition of a trifle of meal 
or oats, and a full supply of salt and pure water. 

When there are larger animals on the premises, the calves 
ought to be kept by themselves. They should be sustained 
on their winter feed through the following spring, until the 
grass furnishes a good bite on a well-compacted sod. The 
change from hay to grass must be gradual, unless the latter is 
considerably matured. The extreme relaxation of the bowels 
from the sudden change, frequently produces excessive purg- 
ing. A slight and temporary relax from the early spring grass, 
is not objectionable. 

Breeding. 

The young animals should never be put to breeding under 
15 months old, so as to bring their first calf at two years old " 

4* 



±'2 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

nor then, unless they have large size and good feed. Much 
depends on the progress towards maturity, and the supply of 
food in selecting the proper time for breeding. Some are as 
ready for this at a year and a half as others are at three. 
Early breeding gives delicacy and symmetry to the form of the 
heifer, but it checks its growth ; and when it is found to put 
her back too much, she may be allowed to rest for a few 
months, or even a year, to bring her' up to the desired stand- 
ard. These remarks apply principally to choice breeders, or 
as they are sometimes termed, fancy stock. For ordinary milch 
cows which have been moderately fed, three years is a proper 
age to come in, after which they must be milked as regularly, , 
and as late before drying as possible. 

Breaking Steers 

Should be commenced when two or three years old. Some 
begin with the calf, accustoming him to a light yoke and occa- 
sional training. This practice will do as a pastime for trust- 
worthy boys, as it makes them gentle and manageable after- 
wards, but is hardly worth a man's time. If always carefully 
handled when young, they will be found tractable. 

They should at first be placed behind a pair of well-broke 
cattle, nor should they be put to hard labor until quite grown, 
strong, and perfectly accustomed to the yoke. If properly 
managed, cattle may be trained with all the docility, intelli- 
gence, and much of the activity of the horse. That they are 
not, is more frequently the fault of their masters. 

Management of Oxen. 

To procure perfect working cattle, it is necessary to begin 
with the proper breed. Many parts of the country furnish 
such as are well suited to this purpose. A strong dash of 
Devon or Hereford blood is desirable, when it needs to be im- 
proved. A well-formed, compact, muscular body ; clean, 
sinewy limbs ; strong, dense bones ; large, well-formed joints, 
with a mild expressive eye, are essential for good working oxen. 

After breaking, they must be led along gently, and taught 
before they are required to perform their task ; and never put 
to a load which they cannot readily move, nor dulled by pro- 
longing exertion beyond that period when it becomes irksome. 
A generous diet is necessary, to keep up the spirit and ability 
of cattle, when there is hard work to be done. The horse and 
mule are fed with their daily rations of grain when at hard 



MANAGEMENT OF OXEN 43 

service, and if the spirit of the ox is to be maintained, he 
should be equally well fed, when as fully employed. Great 
and permanent injury is the result of niggardly feeding and 
severe toil, exacted from the uncomplaining animal. His 
strength declines, his spirit flags, and if this treatment be con- 
tinued, he rapidly becomes the stupid, moping brute, which 
is shown off in degrading contrast with the more spirited 
horse, that performs, it may be, one half the labor, on twice 
his rations. 

The ox should be as little abused by threats and whipping, 
as by stinted feed and overtasked labor. Loud and repeated 
hallooing, or the seveie use of the lash, is as impolitic as it is 
cruel and disgraceful. We never witness this barbaiity with- 
out wishing the brutes could change places, long enough at 
least to teach the biped that humanity by his own sufferings 
which his reason and sensibility have failed to inspire. Clear 
and intelligible, yet low and gentle words are all that are ne- 
cessary to guide the well-trained, spirited ox. The stick, or 
whip, is needed rather to indicate the precise movement de- 
sired, than as a stimulant or means of punishment. The ox 
understands a moderate tone more perfectly than a boisterous 
one, for all sounds become indistinct as they increase. 

It is of great advantage to have oxen well trained to hacking. 
They may soon be taught, by beginning with an empty cart 
on a descent ; then on a level ; then with an increasing load, 
or uphill, till the cattle will back nearly the same load they 
will draw. 

Some oxen have a bad trick of hauling or crowding. Chang- 
ing to opposite sides, longer or shorter yokes, and more than 
all, gentle treatment, are the only remedies, and those not 
unfrequently fail. Cattle will seldom contract this habit, in 
the hands of a judicious, careful driver. The yokes should be 
carefully made, and set easy, and the bows fitted to the 
necks and properly attached to the yoke. Cattle are liable 
to sore necks if used in a storm ; and when subject to this 
exposure, they must be well rubbed with grease, where the 
voke chafes them, and respite from work should be allowed 
tiU the necks heal. 



44 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



Management of Bulls or Vicious Animals. 

Fig. 5. If inclined to be vicious, the bulls slioula 

have rings thrust through the cartilage of 
their nose when young. They are to be 
found at the agricultural warehouses; and 
are made of round iron, three-eighths of an 
inch diameter, with a joint in one side to 
open, and when thrust through the nose, are 
fastened in a moment, by a rivet previously 
prepared. 

Fig. 5 is a coMle-handler, consisting of a 
bar of iron A, eight inches long, with a ring 
for a man's hand, which turns on a swivel at 
B, and at the other end is a pair of calliper- 
shaped legs, one stationary, and the other 
opening on a joint. The fixed leg is inserted 
against one side of the nostril, and the other 
is pressed upon the opposite side, and there 
fastened by a slide, C, when the animal is firmly 
held for administering medicine or performing 
Cattle-Handler, any operation. 




Fig. 6. 



Fig. 7. 




For taming savage Animals. 



Figs. 6 and 7, for taming a bull ; b, in Fig. 6, is a cap 
screwed on to the tip of the horn ; a c, an iron rod hanging 
on a pivot in the cap, with a chain reaching to the ring ir> 



FATTENING CATTLE. 45 




the nose. The effect of his attempting to h >ok, ;s illustrated 
by the various positions of the chain in 
Fig. 7. If the rod at a, is pushed in 
either direction, it jerks up the nose in a 
manner that cures him of his inclination. 
Fig. 8, shows a caitle-iie. — This is 
a much more convenient and comfort-' 
able mode of fastening cattle in the 
stable, than the common stanchions. CattleTrie. 

The proper time for turning off Cattle, 

This must depend on their previous feeding and manage- 
ment, the breed, and the purposes required. The improved 
breeds and many of their crosses, will mature for the butcher 
as fully at three or four, as inferior cattle at five to seven 
years old. If pushed rapidly with proper food, they will of 
course be ripe much sooner than if stinted. When cattle 
have to be purchased for work, or cows for the dairy, it be- 
comes an object to keep them as long as they can be made 
profitable, and yet be turned off for fattening at a fair price. 
We have seen active and spirited oxen in the yoke at 16 or 
11; but they seldom do as well after 12 or even 10 years. 
Old cattle are liable to more diseases than young ; are less 
hardy ; and they recover more slowly when exposed to scanty 
feed or hard usage. They also fatten with more difficulty, 
and their meat is inferior. When they can be sold ad- 
vantageously to the feeder, and replaced without incon- 
venience, it is found to be most profitable to turn them off 
at seven or eight years. They will by that time have at- 
tained full maturity ; they will feed rapidly, and make the 
largest amount of good beef. If there are extraordinary 
milkers among the cows, or superior workers among the oxen, 
it is better to keep them as long as they maintain f heir full 
vigor. 

Fattening Cattle. 

Such as are designed for the shambles the ensuing fall or 
winter, may be allowed to do their spring's labor ; or if cows, 
they may be milked into summer after calving, or go farrow 
during the previous year. They should early be put on the 
best summer feed, and it is better to be occasionally changed, 
to give variety and freshness, and keep the animal in good 



46 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



appetite. Let the fattening animals have the best, and after 
they have cropped it a while, give them a fresh field ; and 
the other animals or sheep can follow and clear off the re- 
maining herbage, preparatory to shutting it up for a new 
growth. Some prefer an extensive range of rich feed, which 
is unchanged throughout the season ; and when it is not ncces- 
sary to divide the pasture with the other animals, this is a 
practice. 

Fig. 9. Fig. 10. 





Fig. 11. 




Thre% cuts of improved forms, Nos. 9, 10, and 11. The 
above cuts illustrate the forms which the most improved beef- 
cattle should possess. 



The selection of Animals for Stall Fattening. 

This is a nice point, and none without a practised eye and 
touch, can choose such as will make the best return for the 
food consumed. The characteristics of choice animals, here- 
tofore enumerated, are particularly essential in those intendec 
for profitable fattening. But the most import mt of all, is 
that firm mellowness, and quick elasticity of touch, which un- 
erringly mark the kindly feeder and profitable bullock. 
When other means for ascertaining fail, it is a safe rule to 
select the best-conditioned animals, out of a herd of grass- 



STALL-FEEDING. 



47 



fed ; for if all were of equal flesh and health, when turned 
out, those which have thriven most on their summer pasture, 
will generally fatten quickest on their fall and winter keep. 
Only the best should be selected. The remainder, after con- 
suming the coarser forage, may be at once disposed of for 
early use. From repeated trials, it is found that the carcass 
of stall-fed animals will barely return the value of the ma- 
terials consumed, and their manure is generally the only com- 
pensation for the time and attention bestowed. None but 
choice, thrifty beasts will pay for their food and attention, 
and all others will make their best returns, by an immediate 
disposal, after the surplus fodder is gone. 

Fig. 12. 




M M 








Points of Cattle Illustrated. 

Explanation.— A, forehead ; B, face ; C, cheek ; D, muzzle ; E, neck ; F, neck 
vein ; G. shoulder point ; H, arm ; I, shank ; J, gambril, or hock ; K, elbow ; 
L, brisket, bosom, or breast ; M, shoulder ; N, crops ; O, loin ; P, hip, hucks, 
hocks, or huckles ; Q, crupper bone, or sacrum ; R, rump, or pin-bone ; S, 
round bone, thurl, or whirl ; T, buttock ; U, thigh, or gaskit ; V, flank ; W, 
plates ; X, back, or chine ; Y, throat ; Z, chest. 



Stall-Feeding. 

This ought to be commenced early in the season. An ox 
may be fed in a box-stall, or if accustomed to a mate, they do 
better by tying together with sufficient room, yet not so near 
as to allow of injuring each other. The building should be 
warm, but not hot ; well ventilated, yet having no current of 



48 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



cold air passing through; and as dark as possible. The stall 
ought to be kept clean and dry, and a deep bed of clean straw 
is of decided advantage. 

The ox should be first fed the inferior and most perishable 
roots with his grain and dry forage, and his food should be 
gradually increased in richness, as he advances towards ma- 
turity. The food and water should be given three times a day, 
from thoroughly cleaned mangers or troughs. The animal 
likes a change of food, in which he should be indulged as often 
as may be necessary. If he refuses his food, a temporary 
privation, or variety is essential. When the food is changed, 
he should be moderately fed at first, till he becomes accustomed 
to it, as there is otherwise danger of cloying, which is always 
injurious. The moment the animal has done feeding, the 
remainder of the food ought to be at once removed. He then 
lies down, and if undisturbed, rests quietly till the proper hour 
induces him again to look for his accustomed rations. Regu- 
larity in the time of feeding, is of the utmost consequence. 
An animal soon becomes habituated to a certain hour, and if 
it be delayed beyond this, he is restless and impatient, which 
are serious obstacles to speedy fattening. 




Ox cut up. 

F*.g. 13— Shows the London method of cutting up the carcass— Fig. 1, is the lorn 
S, rump ; 3, aitch or adz-bone ; 4, buttock ; 5, hock ; 6, thick flank ; 7, thin flank \ 
8, fore-rib ; 9, middle rib ; 10, cuck-rib ; 11, brissct ; 12, leg of mutton piece ; 13, 
clod or neck ; 14, brisket. 



SKELETON OF AN OX. 



49 



Fig. 14. 




i— to «a *. en o> -i 

Skeleton of an Ox. 

1. Temporal bone.— 2. Frontal bone, or bone of the forehead. — 3. Orbit of the 
eye. — 4. Lachrymal bone. — 5. Malar, or cheek bone.-^6. Upper jaw bone.— 7. Nasal 
bone, or bone of the nose.— 8. Nippers, found on the lower jaw alone.— 9. Eight 
true ribs,— 10. Humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder. — 11. Sternum.— 12. Ulna, 
its upper part forming the elbow.— 13. Ulna. — 14. Radius, or principal bone of 
the arm.— 15. Small bones of the knee.— 16. Large metacarpal, or shank bone. 
— 17. Bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger pasterns to each foot. — 18. 
Sessamoid bones.— 19. Bifurcation of the pasterns. — 20. Lower jaw and the grinders. 
— 21. Vertebrae, or bones of the neck. — 22. Navicular bones. — 23. Two-coffin bones 
to each foot.— 24. Two smaller pasterns to each foot. — 25. Smaller or splint-bone. 
— 26. False ribs, with their cartilages. — 27. Patella, or bone of the knee. — 28. 
Small bones of the hock.— 29. Metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg. — 30. 
Pasterns and feet.— 31. Small bones of the hock.— 32. Pointof the hock.— 33. Tibia, 
or proper leg-bone.— 34. Thigh-bone.— 35. Bones of the tail.— 36, 37. Haunch and 
pelvis.— 38. Sacrum.— 39. Bones of the loins.— 40. Bones of the back —41. Liga 
ment of the neck and its attachments.— 42. Scapula, or shoulder-blade. — 43. Bones 
of the back.— 44. Ligament of the neck. — 45. Dentata. — 46. Atlas. — 47. Occipital 
bone, deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head. — 48. Parietal bone, 
low in the temporal fossa. — 49. Horns, being processes or continuations of the 
frontal bone 



50 domestic a:;j:.ials, 

DISEASES IN CATTLE. 

Hoven, or Swelling of the Paunch, 

Is a temporary ailment, caused by eating too freely of fresh 
and generally wet clover, or other succulent food. The animal 
gorges the first stomach with so much food, that its contents 
cannot be expelled. Inflammation of the membrane takes 
place, and decomposition of the food soon follows. This is 
known by the distension of the paunch, and difficulty of 
breathing, and unless speedily relieved, suffocation and death 
will ensue. Both sheep and cattle are subject to it. 

Remedies* — In its early stages, when not too severe, it has 
been removed by administering some one of the following 
remedies. 

A pint of gin poured down the throat. 

From one to two pints of lamp or other oil. 

Strong brine. 

New milk with one-fifth its bulk of tar mixed. 

An egg-shell full of tar forced down the throat, followed by 
a second, if the first fails. 

A tablespoonful of volatile spirit of ammonia, diluted with 
water. 

A wine-glass full of powder, mixed with cold lard and forceo 
in balls into the stomach. 

A teaspoonful of unslaked lime dissolved in a pint of warm 
water, shaken and given immediately. 

A pint of tolerably strong lye. 

The Proper Mode of giving the ahoie Remedies 

Is for a person to hold the horn and cartilage of the nose, 
while another seizes and draws out the tongue as far as possi- 
ble, when the medicine is thrust below the root of the tongue. 
If liquid, it must be inserted by the use of a bottle. 

The prohang is used when the former remedies are ineffectual 
This consists of a tarred rope, or a flexible whip- stalk, three- 
fourths of an inch in diameter, with a swab or bulbous end. 
Two persons hold the head of the animal, so as to keep the 
mouth in a line with the throat, while a third forces it into the 
stomach, when the gas finds a passage out. A stiff leather 
tube with a lead nozzle pierced with holes, is best for insertion, 
through which the gas will readily escape. 

* Besides his own experience, the writer has drawn from the N. E. Farmer, 
the Albany Cultivator,, the American Agriculturist, and other reliable Americas 
ane English works,, some of the remedies for diseases herein mentioned. 



MODE OF GIVING THE ABOVE REMEDIES. 



51 



Some one of the above purgatives should be given after the 
bloat has subsided, and careful feeding for some days must 
be observed. 

Light gruels are best for allaying inflammation, and restoring 
the tone of the stomach. 

When no other means are available, the paunch may be 
tapped with a sharp penknife, plunging it 1^ inches forward 
of the hip bone, towards the last rib in the left side. If the 
hole fills up, put in a large goose-quill tube, which to prevent 
slipping into the wound, may remain attached to the feather, 
and the air can escape through a large hole in the upper end. 

Prevention is vastly better than cure, and may be always 
secured, by not allowing hungry cattle to fill themselves with 
clover, roots, apples, &c. When first put upon such feed, it 
should be when the dew and rain are off, and their stomachs 
are already partially filled ; and they should then be with- 
drawn before they have gorged themselves. 

Fig. 15. 




The Stomach Pump. 



This is a convenient instrument for extracting poisonous sub 
stances from the stomach. It is also highly useful for ad- 
ministering medicines and injections, and if fitted with several 
tubes, one may suffice for animals of any size. It consists of 
a syringe, a, with a side opening at b, and another at the bot- 
tom d, as shown in Fig. 16. For injections, Fig. 15 is used, and 



02 # DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

the end of the syringe is placed in a vessel containing the fluid, 
when a probang or injection-tube is screwed on to the side 
opening at b, through which the fluid is forced into the 
stomach or rectum, as may be required. The probang should 
be a tube of thick but elastic leather, and it may be passed 
into the mouth, through an aperture in a block, placed on 
edge between the teeth, which is easily done while a person 
holds the head of the animal firmly. 

Choking 

Is frequently relieved by some of the following expedients. 

The use of the probang or whip-stock, mentioned under the 
head of remedies for Hoven, by which the root is forced into 
the stomach. 

A soft root may be crushed so as to allow of swallowing, 
by holding a smooth block against it, and striking with a mal- 
let on the opposite side. 

If within arms-length, the root may be removed by hand. 

It is said this can be done, by tying up the fore-leg with a 
small cord, close to the body, and giving the animal a sudden 
start with a whip ; or by jerking the fore-leg out forward. 

Or pour down the throat a pint bottle full of soft soap, 
mixed with sufficient hot water to make it run freely. 

Prevention consists in cutting the roots ; not feeding them 
when the animals are very hungry, and not disturbing them 
while eating. 

Inflammation of the Stomach. 

This is frequently produced by a sudden change from dry 
to green food, and some other causes. 

Epsom salts, castor oil, sulphur, and carbonate of soda, in 
sufficient quantity to purge freely, are good remedies. 

It may be prevented by changing the food gradually. 

Mange, or Scab. 

This is denoted by the animal rubbing the hair off about 
the eyes and other parts. The skin is scaly or scabby, some- 
times appearing like a large seed-wart. 

Remedies. — Rub the spots with sulphur and lard, after scra- 
ping and washing with soap. 

When the skin is cracked, take sulphur, 1 lb. ; turpentine, 
\ lb. ; unguentum, (or mercurial ointment,) 2 ounces ; linseed 
oil, 1 pint. Melt the turpentine and warm the oil, and when 



HOLLOW HORN JAUNDICE. 53 

partly cooled, stir in the sulphur ; when cold, add the unguen- 
tum, mixing all well. Rub this thoroughly with the hand on 
the parts affected. 

We have no doubt this, like scab in sheep and itch in the 
human species, will be found, on close investigation, to be 
caused by minute insects located in the skin. Salt and water 
ought, in that case, to be a good remedy. 

Hollow Horn, or Horn Ail. 

This is not unfrequently hollow stomachy and very often 
follows stinted fare, hard usage, and exposure to cold. "We 
have noticed this as most prevalent among oxen that have 
done a severe winter's work. 

Symptoms. — Bloody urine ; swollen udder ; shaking the 
head ; eyes and head swollen ; standing with the head against 
a fence or barn ; eyes dull and sunken, and horns cold. 

Remedies. — Bleed and physic, shelter and feed properly. 

Take a half pint of good vinegar, two tablespoonfuls of 
salt, one teaspoonful of pepper, and mix and pour into each 
ear, holding the head on one side for two minutes. 

Bore Avith a large gimlet on the under side of the horn, 
three or four inches from the head ; and if hollow, bore nearer 
the head and let out all the matter, and syringe two or three 
times a day with salt and water, or soap-suds, or salt and 
vinegar. 

Spirits of turpentine rubbed in around the base of the horns, 
will arrest the disease in its incipient stages. 

Pour a spoonful of boiling hot brimstone into the cavity be- 
tween the horns. 

Pour a teakettle of boiling water on the horns, holding so 
as to prevent injury to the other parts. 

Soot and pepper given internally are good. 

• Jaundice, or Yellows. 

This is owing to gall-stones or calculi, which occasionally 
accumulate in large numbers, and is sometimes owing to in- 
creased or altered quality of the bile. It is manifested by the 
yellowness of the eye and skin, and high color of the urine, 
and poor appetite. 

Remedies. — Bleed, and purge with Epsom salts. 

If taken in season, 2 ounces of ground mustard may' r, 
mixed with a liquid, and given twice a day. 

Green food is a good preventive. 
5* 



54 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



Mad Itch. 

This disease exists in some of the Western states, and shows 
itself by jerking of the head, and itching around the nose and 
base of the horns. They will lick their sides and backs, and 
jerk and hiccup till they fill themselves with wind ; afterwards 
they froth at the mouth, and in 24 hours die raving mad. 

Remedy. — Give as much soot and salt as the animal will 
eat ; soon after, give £ or 1 lb. of brimstone or sulphur ; and 
8 hours after, as many salts. 

Bloody Murrain, or Red Water. 

This disease first shows itself in a cough, then heaving of 
the flanks, with bloody, black, and foetid eracuations, tender- 
ness over the loins, and coldness of the horns. Tumors and 
biles sometimes appear. The animal holds down the head, 
moans, is restless, and staggers when walking. 

Causes. — We have lost several animals by this fatal disease, 
and are not aware of having cured any when severely attacked. 
In repeated instances, we have seen large flukes taken out of 
the liver, strongly resembling the common leech, which abounds 
in many of our swampy lands. It is certain that on new, low 
swamps and clay lands, cattle are most liable to it ; and when 
they have been subject to repeated attacks in such localities, 
clearing and draining have checked it. 

Youatt attributes it to certain kinds of forage, which are pe- 
culiar to the above situations. We are rather inclined to as- 
cribe it to exposure, to excessive dampness, and especially to 
miasma ; for although the brute creation are perhaps less sen- 
sitive to these influences than man, yet, as they are governed 
•by the same unvarying laws of nature, when subjected to 
conditions totally unsuited to their economy, they must suffer 
equally in kind, though probably not in degree, with the more 
refined human frame. But it is evident the disease, its causes, 
and remedies, are as yet imperfectly understood. 

Remedies. — However intelligent men may differ as to its 
causes, all agree that the animal should first be bled, and then 
thoroughly purged. In obstinate cases, this last is a difficult 
matter. We have given repeated doses of powerful cathartics 
without producing any effect ; and whenever the medicine is 
inoperative, death speedily follows. 

Large doses of common salt, or Epsom salts dissolved in 
water, are good purgatives, and if the animal neglects drink- 



TiOOF AtL. 55 

ing after taking them, he should be drenched with copious 
draughts of water. These should be repeated every few 
hours, if ineffectual. 

Injections are sometimes useful, when medicine fails to act. 
These may be made of soap and water ; or take 2 or 3 gills of 
oats boiled, 3 drachms saltpetre, 1\ oz. linseed oil, mix and 
use them when warm. 

The opening of the bowels may be followed with a pint of 
linseed oil, as an additional and gentle laxative. 

When the animal begins to recover, gentle astringents and 
tonics may be. given. 

Preventives. — We have more confidence in preventives than 
in remedies. Good ke p, shelter, dryness, and clean pastures, 
will generally prevent attack. The cattle should at all times 
be supplied with two or three troughs under cover, on the sides 
and bottoms of which tar should be plentifully spread. Let 
equal portions of salt and slaked lime be in one ; salt and 
wood ashes in another ; and salt and brimstone in a third. 
Many farmers have entirely avoided this disease while using 
one or more of these, when they annually lost many by it pre- 
viously. 

Hoof Ail 

Is indicated by lameness, fever, and a soft swelling just above 
the hoof. 

Remedies. — Carefully wash the foot in warm soap-suds, and 
while still damp, apply between the claws on the affected part 
from one to three grains of corrosive sublimate. If it does not 
fully adhere, it must be mixed with hog's lard, but it should 
be so applied as to be out of the reach of the animal's tongue, 
as it is a powerful poison, and the extreme irritability of the 
feet will induce him to lick them. 

The claw is efficiently cleansed, by drawing a cord briskly 
through it, when either of the above applications, or blue vitriol 
put on two or three times a day, or spirits of turpentine, will 
effect a cure. 

It is sometimes cured by putting the animals in the stan- 
chions, and applying a sharp chisel three-fourths of an inch from 
the toe, and striking it with a mallet till it is cut off. If it does 
not bleed freely, cut off shavings till it does. If the animal is 
refractory, let a person hold up the opposite foot. Keep them 
in the stable two or three days, and out of the mud for a 
week. 



56 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



of Cud 



Is loss of appetite, prostration, and general ill-health. 

Remedies. — Give a warm bran mash, with good hay, and 
warm water with salt. 

An aloe tincture, made with brandy and ginger, is good. 

Afterwards give good, dry, nourishing food ; and bitter in- 
fusions, chamomile flowers, hoarhound, oak bark, &c, in beer. 

Scours, or Diarrhoea, 

A common remedy, is to boil the bark of white oak, white 
pine, and beech, and give a strong infusion in bran. If they 
refuse to eat it, pour it down. The oak is astringent, and the 
pine and beech soothing and healing. 

Warbles 

Are grubs, the egg of which is deposited in the back of cattle 
by the gad-fly, {CEstrus bovis.) They are discernible by a pro- 
tuberance or swelling on the back. They may be pressed out 
by the thumb and finger ; or burnt out by plunging a hot wire 
in them ; or a few applications of strong brine will remove 
them. 

Wounds 

In cattle are readily healed, when the animal's blood is in good 
order, by applying a salve made of 1 oz. green copperas ; 2 
oz. white vitriol ; 2 oz. salt ; 2 oz. linseed oil ; 8 oz. molasses. 
Boil over a slow fire 15 minutes in a pint of urine, and when 
almost cold, add 1 oz. oil of vitriol, and 4 oz. spirits turpentine. 
Apply it with a feather to the wound, and cure soon follows. 

Milk, or Puerperal Fever, 

Is a common disease with cows in high condition, at the time 
of calving. It may, in almost every case, be avoided, by keep- 
ing them in moderate feed and flesh. 

Remedies. — Bleed freely, say 6 to 10 quarts, according to 
the circulation of the blood ; then give 1 to 1£ lbs. of Epsom 
salts, according to the size of the beast, to be repeated in hall 
lb. doses every six hours, till she purges freely. 

Injections should always be given when purgatives are tardy 
in their operation. 



GARGET SORE TEATS WARTS. 57 

Caked Bag 

May be removed by simmering the bark of the ro3t of bit- 
ter-sweet in lard, till it becomes very yellow. When cool, 
apply it to the swollen udder once in 8 or 10 hours ; or wash 
it several times a day in cold water. 

A pint of horseradish, fed once a day, cut up with potatoes 
or meal, is useful for the same purpose. 

This is also a tonic, helps the appetite, and is good for oxen 
subject to heat. 

Garget 

Is a more intense degree of inflammation than exists in caked 
bag and sore, swollen teats, and shows itself in hard bunches 
on the udder. 

The cow should be bled, and take a large dose of physic ; 
then wash the udder as in caked bag. 

Repeated doses of sulphur is a good remedy. 

Garget, or scoke root, given of the size of a large finger, 
grated and fed in their food, is a general application with farm- 
ers. The garget plant grows from three to six feet high, with 
a purple stalk, and strings of berries hanging down between 
the branches. 

Sore Teats 

May be healed by rubbing with goose oil, cream, new milk ; 
or make the same applications for it as for caked bag. The 
bag and teats should be well cleansed with warm soft water, if 
to be followed by any ointment. 

The following application is recommended by Youatt : One 
ounce of yellow wax and three of lard ; melt together, and 
when cooling, rub in one quarter ounce of sugar of lead, and a 
drachm of alum finely powdered. 

Warts 

Are of two kinds ; the first, on the outer skin, may be re- 
moved by rubbing with camphorated olive oil. The others 
penetrate into the flesh, and may be removed by a ligature of 
fine twine, or silk, or india-rubber drawn into a string, and tied 
tightly around the wart, which falls off in a few days. 

Remedies. — Nitrate of silver, (lunar caustic,) applied to the 
wart, will remove it, but it produces a sore. 

Apply a strong wash of a^im. 



58 DOMESTIC \NIMALS. 

Rub with the juice of milk- weed. 
Poultice with grated carrot. 

Cut off the wart with sharp scissors, when the cow is dry. It 
will bleed little, and soon heal. 

Sore Necks on Working Oxen. 

These occur when worked in wet weather, or with bad yokes. 
The remedy is, rub with a healing application. The preventive 
is, good yokes ; the application of grease ; or a decoction of 
white or yellow oak bark applied to the affected parts. Or, 
a better preventive is a canvass or leather cap to protect the 
neck entirely from the storm. 

The Bite of Poisonous Snakes 

May be cured by shaking together equal parts of olive oil 
and hartshorn, and rubbing the wound and adjacent parts 
three or four times a day. For a full-grown animal, one quart 
of olive oil and an ounce of hartshorn should be administered 
internallv, in addition to the above. 

For Stings of Bees, Hornets, &c. 

Apply warm vinegar and salt, rubbing the parts thoroughly. 

For a Forming Tumor. 

Rub thoroughly with strong brine, or a solution of sal ammo- 
niac dissolved in eight times its weight of water. If the tumor 
comes to a head, open it near the bottom with a lancet ; or 
place a seton in it so as to admit the escape of purulent matter. 

Lice and Vermin 

Sometimes abound on cattle during the latter part of winter 
and spring. These are generally the result of mange, which 
is itself the effect of ill-feeding and ill-condition. They are 
removed with the cause. We doubt if they can be perma- 
nently kept off, where the animal is losing flesh and health. 

Remedies. — Restore the health and condition, and sprinkle 
sand, ashes, or dirt plentifully around the roots of the horns, 
and along the ridge of the neck and back. 

A liberal application of train or other oil has nearly a simi- 
lar effect. 

Never apply an ointment containing corrosive sublimate or 



THE TREMBLE3. 59 

other poison, as it may be licked by the animal or its fellows, 
who may thus become seriously poisoned. 

The Trembles, 

Producing milk sickness (a most fatal disease) in the human 
family, from eating the milk or flesh of animals affected by it. 
This disease, which exists principally in the region of the Wa- 
bash River, is supposed by Dr. Drake to be owing to the poi- 
son oak, (Rhus Toxicodendron,) or poison vine, (Radicans,) 
which the animals eat. 

Symptoms. — The animal mopes, is feverish and costive, but 
apparently preserves its appetite. The next stage of the dis- 
ease is faintness and vertigo, which is shown when the animal 
is put upon exertion, being followed by excessive trembling and 
entire prostration. 

Remedy. — Almost every cathartic has been tried in vain. 
Indian corn, both dry and green, has been fed to all animals 
accustomed to eating it, and when they can be induced to feed 
upon it freely, purging is generally secured. Rest of the ani- 
mal is absolutely essential while the disease continues, and is 
itself an effectual remedy in mild cases. 

Besides the diseases enumerated, there are occasional epi- 
demics, such as black tongue, black foot, or foot root, &c, which 
carry off great numbers of animals. Remedies for these are 
frequently not discovered, and the epidemic is allowed to run 
its course unchecked. The only preventives are such care, 
food, and management as the experienced herdsman knows td 
be best suited to the maintenance of the health and thrift of 
his stock. 

JSFote. — Some ailments will be found under the head of dis- 
eases of the other animals mentioned in this work, the general 
resemblance of which to each other will justify nearly a similar 
treatment. 

If intelligent farriers are at hand, they may sometimes be 
called in with advantage ; though we acknowledge our distrust 
of the quackery of most of those passing under this tiMe. 
There is little science or intelligent study in the composition of 
this class, the world over ; and much of their practice is the 
merest empiricism. The owner should see to it, if he employs 
one of whose attainir.er.ts he is doubtful, that neither medicines 
nor operations be used, unnecessarily severe or hazardous to the 
animal. Especially, should the diabolical practice be interdict- 



60 DOMESTIC AN1A/ALS. 

ed, of the abundant and indiscriminate use of poisons, boiling 
oils, turpentine, and tar, and the hot iron applied to the sensi- 
tive wound or naked flesh. If certain or effectual remedies 
for the removal of disease cannot he appJied, such as aug- 
ment the suffering or endanger the life of the poor dumb 
things, may at least be avoided. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE DAIRY. 

Cows for the Dairy. 

From what has been said on the various characteristics of 
the different breeds of cattle, it must be evident, that no very 
definite criteria of excellence can be given for all good dairy 
cows. But there are certain points in a good milker, that can 
hardly be mistaken. 

She should be descended from the best milking stock ; her 
head should be small or of medium size, muzzle fine, and nos- 
trils flexible and expanded ; face long, slender, and dishing ; 
cheeks thin ; eyes full, mild, and prominent ; horns delicate 
and waxy, and they may be either branching, lopped, crum- 
pled, or hornless ; long, thin, lively ear, and the inside of an 
orange color ; neck thin and small at its junction with the 
head ; deep chest, but not too heavy before ; back level and 
broad ; well ribbed ; belly large ; low flank ; wide thighs, 
but thin ; short legs, and standing well apart ; large milking 
veins ; loose, capacious udder, coming well out behind ; good 
teats ; loose, mellow skin, of a deep yellow ; and a fine, thick 
coat of glossy hair ; and she must be of a good disposition, 
and free from tricks. 

Yet, with all the skill of a well- practised taste in the selec- 
tion of animals, the dairyman will frequently find his theories 
and results at sad variance. One may sometimes select a fine 
animal, with every appearance of good milking qualities, which 
is but a medium cow at the pail ; and another, that hardly 
seems worthy of notice, and which sets at defiance many es- 
tablished milking points, and all preconceived notions of sym- 
metry, may yet prove a good milker. A cow that runs to 
flesh "v^hile in milk, is generally an indifferent animal for the 



MILKING. 61 

dairy. Perfect on in a cow, consists in converting all she eats 
into milk while yielding it, and when dry, in turning all she 
consumes into valuable meat. 

Management of Dairy Cows. 

A cow may have her first calf when between two and three 
years of age, according to her size and development. After 
calving, she should be stinted in her food for two or three 
days, and not fed freely for a week. Avoid fat in a breeding 
cow. Too high feeding is the cause of milk-fever, caked bag, 
garget, and a host of evils ; and very poor feed is almost 
equally objectionable. 

The average time of a cow with young, is from 40 to 41 
weeks ; but they sometimes go only 34, and occasionally over- 
run 44. 

A dry, unoccupied stall or yard is best for her to calve in ; 
and if there is any serious delay or difficulty in the operation, 
she may be assisted by placing the foetus in the right position, 
and gently pulling it, with every throe of the dam. After the 
calf has drawn all he wants at morning and evening, the bag 
should be thoroughly and quickly emptied of all the milk. If 
strong and vigorous, the calf is the best doctor for garget or 
caked bag. He may be allowed to suck the cow or not, at 
the option of the owner ; there are reasons for and against the 
practice, as will be seen under the head of rearing calves, and 
each person must determine in his own case on which side the 
balance lies. 

Milking. 

This is an important operation, and on its proper perform- 
ance depends much of the success of the dairyman. A cow 
regularly, gently, yet quickly and thoroughly milked, will give 
much more than if neglected. If a herd of cows be separated 
into two divisions, each yielding the same quantity of milk, and 
one is given to a good milker, and the other to a shiftless or 
lazy one, the latter will speedily reduce his milk much below 
the quantity obtained by the former ; and if the milkers then 
exchange cows, they will be found to change quantity too, 
those before affording the least, soon giving the most. An in- 
different milker ought never to be tolerated in a herd, good 
<^nes are cheaper at double the price. It is best to milk at in- 
tervals of about 1 2 hours ; which may be done wh^n pastures 





62 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

are convenient, or cows are soiled or fed in the yard. But as 
this is not often the case in the season of green food, they 
should be milked early in the morning and turned into pasture, 
to fill themselves before the sun is oppressive ; and if they are 
to be kept up at night, let them browse in the pasture as long- 
as possible, before they are brought to the yard. 



MILK 

Is produced from the females of all the warm-blooded ani- 
mals, which are enumerated among the mammaliae. The milk 
of several animals is employed for domestic purposes, among 
different nations. That of the camel is used by the Arabs ; 
the milk of the ass by the Spaniards, the Maltese, and the in- 
habitants of the Levant ; that of the mare by the Cossacks, 
the Kirgheez, and other Tartars ; and that of the goat, the ewe, 
and the cow, by most of the ancient, and with few exceptions, 
by every modern European nation. Within the last century, 
however, the use of all excepting cow's milk has been almost 
entirely discarded, among the most highly civilized people. 

If we except some few Welsh and Swiss, or other emigrants, 
who resort to the goat and ewe for their dairy materials, for 
the first few yeai s of their residence here, the cow is the only 
animal which is employed in America for producing milk. 
For this, she is pre-eminently fitted, and the modern improve- 
ment of this invaluable animal has carried her product of milk 
almost as far as can be reasonably looked for from a given 
amount of food ; and although this is of about the average 
richness of the goat and ewe, and before that of the ass, the 
quantity she yields is frequently as 60 to 1, in favor of the 
cow, over the first two competitors. As a milk-giving animal, 
the cow is the best fitted for the purposes of civilized man ; 
and she is made to contribute, not only to his health, his com- 
fort, and his economy, but to many of his choicest luxuries. 
Milk contains every element of nutrition necessary to animal 
existence ; and man can subsist, with unimpaired health and 
strength, if limited to this food alone. 

The Constituents of Milk 

Are butter, which varies from 2 to 6 per cent. ; casein oi 
cheese, usually 4 to 5, but sometimes varying from 3 to 15 
per cent. ; (tb 3 last excessive quantity, yielded only by the first 



QUANTITY- AND CHARACTER OF MILK. 63 

milk after calving ;) milk-sugar, 4 to 6 ; salts or saline matter, 
0.2 to 0.6 ; and water, 80 to 89. 

There is much diversity in the product and quality of milk 
from cows of the same breed, the same food, and other cir- 
cumstances and conditions, apparently equal. Thus, of a herd 
of 22, chiefly Ayrshire, one gave 84 quarts in one week, which 
afforded 3£ lbs. of butter ; two others in the same time gave 
86, yielding 5^ lbs. ; and a fourth gave 88 quarts, making 7 lbs. 

The amount of butter, however, which a given quantity of 
milk will produce, is not the only criterion of the value of the 
milk, except for this purpose alone. Some cows will yield 
more butter, others will produce more cheese ; while for con- 
sumption, another may partially compensate, in the increased 
quantity of milk-sugar, and the saline matters, for a deficiency 
of both the other ingredients. But for dairy purposes, butter 
and .cheese are the only measure of the value of milk ; and a 
cow is esteemed good or indifferent, as she gives one or the 
other in the greatest abundance. 

Circumstances which modify the Quantity and Character of 

Milk. 

Besides the accidental variation in the quantity and quality 
of milk in different animals, before adverted to, there are 
many reliable causes which influence both. Of these, parent- 
age has a most decided and uniform influence, frequently 
modified, however, in the particular individual, by some per- 
sonal and controlling causes. But a cow, whose maternal an- 
cestry on both sides are choice milkers, is almost certain to 
resemble them. 

Food influences the quantit} T , rather than the quality. 
Boussingault tried numerous experiments, with cows fed on 
various kinds of food, and found the difference hardly ap- 
preciable in the quality of milk. Its true benefit is to be 
looked for in the increased quantity, through which, the 
valuable ingredients are distributed in nearly the same pro- 
portion, as when the product is materially lessened. By 
quality we mean to be understood, the amount of the in- 
gredients, valuable for nutrition only ; for it is certain, that 
there is a rich aromatic flavor, not only in milk, but in butter 
and cheese, which is afforded in various articles of food, and 
especially by the fresh green herbage which abounds in the 
pastures from spring to autumn. 

Activity or rest has a great effect on both quantity and 



64 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

quality. The less iction, and the more quiet and rest, the 
greater the amount of milk and butter. But exercise is ab- 
solutely essential to the production of cheese. Butter may 
be made from cows confined in a stable, but cheese can only 
be profitably made from animals at pasture. It is supposed 
by physiologists, that the exercise in gathering their food, 
rather than any peculiarity in its character, is necessary to 
convert the nitrogenized tissues into the nitrogenized principle 
of caseum or cheese. 

The time from calving, has also its effect. The first milk 
drawn from a cow after calving, has been found to yield over 
15 per cent, of casein, while in its ordinary state it gives 
only three to five and a half. As the quantity of milk dimin- 
ishes in a farrow cow, the quality improves within certain 
limits. Pregnancy affects the quality injuriously, and espe- 
cially towards its latter stages ; and a cow that is predisposed 
to giving milk, should be dried off a few weeks before its ex- 
piration, as it is then unfit for use. 

Fat cows give poorer milk than such as are moderately 
lean ; and young animals do not come up to the maximum of 
their quality, till after their third or fourth calving. 

The milk fiist drawn from the udder, will yielcl only an 
eighth, and sometimes even a much less proportion of cream, 
than the strippings ; and the milk which is drawn three times 
a day, is greatly inferior to such as is taken but once, though 
the latter is less abundant. 

Excitement, or fretfulness ; change of locality, or to a dif- 
ferent herd, with new companions ; separation from her calf ; 
periodical heat ; annc vance from flies, or worry from dogs ; 
exposure to storms, severe cold, or an oppressive sun, and 
many similar causes, diminish the quantity of milk and butter ; 
but some of these may reasonably be expected to increase 
the proportion of its casein. 

Dr. Playfair found that the quantity of butter in the evening 
milk, after the cow had been at pasture all day, was 3.7 per 
cent., while the casein was 5.4; after lying quietly a*ll night, 
the milk from the -same cow, on the following morning, con- 
tained 5.6 per cent, of butter, and only 3.9 of casein. In 
stabling the cow, the butter was invariably in greater propor- 
tion than when allowed to ramble in the pasture ; and the 
casein, with a single exception, was equally diminished. 



CKEAM. 



65 



Fig. 17. 




Lactometer, or Cream Guage. 



Fig. 17, is a 
number of glass 
tubes of equal 
size, set in a 
frame called a lac- 
tometer or cream 
guage. If milk 
from different 
cows be set in 
these, the depth 
of the cream 
will indicate their 
comparative rich- 
ness. 



Cream. 

If milk be immediately set away in shallow vessels, after 
being taken from the cow, the cream rises to the surface, car- 
vying with it most of the butter contained in the milk, and 
much of its casein also. Hence, the great nutritive properties 
of buttermilk, which retains the casein in very large pro- 
portions, much of it being rejected by the butter in its sepa- 
ration from the cream. 

A temperature below 34°, will prevent the cream from 
rising in any considerable quantity, and preserve the milk un- 
altered for some weeks. Coagulating the milk from any 
cause, will equally prevent the separation of the cream. The 
elevation of temperature within certain limits, hastens the 
separation. Thus, at 50°, the cream will mostly have risen 
in 36 hours ; at 55°, in ?A ; at 68°, in 18 or 20; and at 11°, 
in 10 or 12 hours. 

Heating the milk near the boiling point, and then setting it 
away and allowing it to remain undisturbed, will soon cause 
the cream to rise. In the celebrated Orange dairy, near 
Baltimore, Md., this system was practised, by which, not 
only most of the cream was secured for butter, but in con- 
sequence of its rapid separation, the skimmed milk was sent 
to market within a few hours after being drawn ; and the 
scalding imparted to it an agreeable flavor and apparent 
richness, which it did not really possess. 

The celebrated clouted cream of Devonshire, England, and 
the butter made from it, contains an unusual quantity of 

6* 



60 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

casein, the consequence of heating the milk. " It is prepared 
by straining the warm milk into large shallow pans into which 
a little water has previously been put, allowing these to stand 
from six to twelve hours, and then carefully heating them 
over a slow fire, or on a hot plate, till the milk approaches 
the boiling point. The milk, however, must not actually 
boil, nor must the skin of the cream be broken. The dishes 
are now removed into the dairy, and allowed to cool. In 
summer the cream should be churned on the following 
day ; in winter it may stand over two days. The quantity 
of cream obtained is said to be one-fourth greater by this 
method, and t.he milk which is left is proportionably poor." — 
[Johfiston.J 

BUTTER. 

Electricity 

Has much to do with the changes in milk, as in all other 
substances. Glass milk-pans might, therefore, be supposed 
to be the best vessels for keeping the milk unchanged and 
sweet. 

It may possibly not afford any practical result, yet intelli- 
gent experiments for introducing a stream of electricity might 
well be justified, to aid in the separation of the butteraceous 
particles in the operation of churning. 

Sour Cream. 

Cream, for the purpose of churning, is usually allowed to 
become sour. It ought to be at least one day old, but may 
with advantage be kept several days in cool weather, if it be 
previously well freed from milk, and be frequently stirred 
to keep it from curdling. This sour cream is put into the 
churn, and worked in the usual way until the butter separates. 
This is collected into lumps, well beat and squeezed free from 
the milk, and in some dairies is washed with pure cold water 
ns long as the water, is rendered milky. In other localities 
the butter is not washed, but after being well beat, is care- 
fully freed from the remaining milk by repeated squeezings 
and dryings with a clean cloth. Both methods, no doubt, 
have their advantages. In the same circumstances, the wash- 
ed butter may be more easily preserved in the fresh state, 
while the unwashed butter will probably possess a higher 
flavor. 



CHUKNING THE WHOLE MILK. 67 



Sweet Cream 

May be put into the churn and the butter be obtained, but 
in most cases it requires more labor and longer time, without, 
in the opinion of good judges, affording in general a finer 
quality of butter. In all oases the cream becomes sour during 
the agitation, and before the butter begins distinctly to form. 

Clouted Cream 

The churning of the clouted cream of this and other coun- 
tries, forms an exception to the general rule just stated, that 
more time is required in the churning of sweet creams. Clout- 
ed cream may be churned in the morning after it is made, that 
is, within twenty-four hours of the time when the milk was 
taken from the cow ; and from such cream it is well known 
that the butter separates with very great ease. But in this 
case, the heating of the cream has already disposed the oily 
matter to cohere, an incipient running together of the globules 
has probably taken place before the cream is removed from 
the milk, and hence the comparative ease with which the 
churning is effected. There is something peculiar in butter 
prepared in this way, as it is known in other countries by the 
name of Bohemian butter. It is said to be very agreeable in 
flavor, but it must contain more cheesy matter than the butter 
from ordinary cream. 

Churning the whole Milk 

Is a much more laborious method, from the difficulty of 
keeping in motion such large quantities of fluid. It has the 
advantage, however, of giving a larger quantity of butter. 
At Rennes, in Brittany, the milk of the previous evening is 
poured into the churn along with the warm morning's milk, 
and the mixture is allowed to stand for some hours, when the 
whole is churned. In this way it is said that a larger quanti- 
ty of butter is obtained, and of a more delicate flavor. 

In the neighborhood of Glasgow, according to Mr. Aiton, 
the milk is allowed to stand six, twelv e, or twenty-four hours 
in the dairy, till the whole has cooled,- and the cream has risen 
to the surface. Two or three milkings, still sweet, are then 
poured together with their cream, into a large vessel, and are 
left undisturbed till the whole has become quite sour, and is 
completely coagulated. The proper sourness is indicated by 
the formation of a stiff brat upon the surface which has become 



68 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



uneven. Great . are must be taken to keep the brat >md curd 
unbroken until the milk is about to be churned, for if any of 
the whey be separated, the air gains admission to it and to the 
curd, and fermentation is induced. By this fermentation, the 
quality of the butter may or may not be affected, but that of 
the buttermilk is almost sure to be injured. 

In Holland the practice is a little different. The cream is 
not allowed to rise to the surface at all, but the milk is stirred 
two or three times a day, till it gets sour, and so thick that a 
wooden spoon will stand in it. It is then put into the churn, 
and the working, or the separation of the butter is assisted by 
the addition of a quantity of cold water. By churning the 
sour milk in one or other of these ways, the butter is said to 
be "rich, sound, and well-flavored." If it be greater in quan- 
tity, it is, according to Sprengel, because the fatty matter car- 
ries with it from the milk a larger quantity of casein than it 
does in most cases from the cream alone. 



Sourness of the Cream. 

For the production of the best butter, it is necessary that 
the cream should be sufficiently sour before it is put into the 
churn. Butter made from sweet cream (not clouted) is neither 



Fig. 13. 




good in quality, nor large in 
quantity, and longer time is 
required in churning. It is an 
unprofitable method. 

Fig. 18 is a Cylindrical 
Thermometer Churn, of any 
required size, with false metal 
bottom to hold cold or hot 
water for bringing the cream 
to the proper temperature. 
A thermometer, permanently 
set in the side, indicates the 
heat. 



Quickness in Churning. 

The more quickly milk or cream is churned, the paler, the 
softer, and the less rich the butter. Cream, according to Mr 
Aiton, may be safely churned in an hour and a half, while 
milk ought to obtain from two to three hours. The churning 
ought always to be regular, slower in warm weather, that the 



ADVANTAGES OF CHURNING THE ENTIRE MILK. 69 

butler may not be soft and white, and quicker in winter, that 
the proper temperature may be kept up. 

A barrel-churn, lately introduced into this country, being 
placed in a trough of water of the proper temperature, readily 
imparts the degree of heat required by the milk or cream 
without the necessity of adding warm water to the milk, and 
churns the whole in ten or twelve minutes. It is said also to 
give a larger weight of butter from the same quantity of milk. 
If the quality be really as good by this quick churning, the 
alleged inferiority in the quality of butter churned quickly in 
the common churn cannot be due to the mere rapidity of 
churning alone. 

Over-churning. 

When the process of churning is continued after the full 
separation of the butter, it loses its fine yellowish, waxy ap- 
pearance, and becomes soft and light-colored. The weight of 
the butter, however, is considerably increased ; and hence, in 
Lancashire, over-churning is frequently practised in the manu- 
facture of fresh butter for immediate sale. 

Temperature of the Milk or Cream. 

Much also depends upon the temperature of the milk or 
cream when the churning is commenced. Cream when put 
into the churn should never be warmer than 55° Fahrenheit 
It rises during the churning from 4° to 10° F. above its origi- 
nal temperature. When the whole milk is churned, the tem- 
perature should be raised to 65° F., which is best done by 
pouring in hot water into the churn while the milk is kept in 
motion. In winter, either of these temperatures may be easily 
attained. In cold weather it is often necessary to add hot 
water to the cream to raise it even to 55°. But in summer, 
and especially in hot weather, it is difficult, even in cool and 
well-ordered dairies, (without the use of ice,) to keep the cream 
down to this comparatively low temperature. Hence, if the 
cream be then churned, a second-rate- butter, at best, is all 
that can be obtained. 

The alleged advantages of Churning the entire Milk. 

The proper temperature can be readily obtained both in 
winter and summer. A hundred gallons of entire milk, will 
give, in summer, five per cent, more butter than the cream 



70 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

from the same quantity of milk. Butter of the best quality 
can be obtained without difficulty, both in winter and summer. 
No special attention to circumstances, or change of method, is 
at any time required. The churning in winter and summer is 
alike simple and easy. The butter is not only of the best 
quality while fresh, but is also best for long-keeping, when 
properly cured or salted. 

Cleanliness in all the operations of the Dairy. 

This is peculiarly necessary to the manufacture of good 
butter. Cream is remarkable for the rapidity with which it 
absorbs and becomes tainted by any unpleasant odors. It is 
very necessary that the air of the dairy should be sweet, that 
it should be often renewed, and that it should be open in no 
direction from which bad odors can come. {Johnston and 
other authorities.) 

The statement of J. T. Lansing, who received the first pre- 
mium for butter from the New York State Agricultural Socie- 
ty, is as follows : — 

Keep the cows stabled through the inclement season ; feed them 
from three to four times per day with good hay or green stalks ; 
when near coming in, add some oats, barley, or corn cracked. 
In summer, good pasture, with living water accessible at all 
times, and plenty of salt. 

Treatment of milk and cream before churning. — Strain the 
milk in tin pans ; place them in a cool cellar for the cream to 
rise. When sufficiently risen, separate the cream from the 
milk ; put in stone jars, well prepared before churning. 

Tlie mode of churning in summer. — Rinse the churn with 
cold water ; then turn in the cream, and add to each jar of 
cream ■ put in the churn, full one-fourth of the same quantity 
of cold water. The churn used is a patent one, moved by 
hand with a crank, having paddles attached, and so construct- 
ed as to warm the milk (if too cold) with hot water, without 
mixing them together. The milk and cream receive the same 
treatment in winter as in summer ; and in churning, use hot 
instead of cold water, if necessary. ' 

The method of freeing the butter from the milk, is to wash 
the butter with cold water, till it shows no color of the milk, 
by the use of a ladle. 

Salting the butter. — Use the best kind of Liverpool sack- 
salt ; the quantity varies according to the state in which the 
butter is taken from the churn ; if soft, more ; if hard, less ; 



CLEANLINESS IN THE DAIRY. 71 

aiways taking the taste for the surest guide. Add no saltpetre, 
nor other substances. 

The best time for churning is the morning, in hot weather, 
and to keep the butter cool till put down. 

The best mode of preserving butter, in and through the sum- 
mer and winter, is as follows : — The vessel is a stone jar, clean 
and sweet. The mode of putting it down is to put in a churn- 
ing of butter, and put on strong brine ; let it remain on until 
the next churning is ready to put down, and so on till the jar 
is filled ; then cover it with fine salt the same to remain on 
till used. 

Mr. McWilliams, of Orange county, the celebrity of whose 
butter is unsurpassed, thus details his method of butter- 
making : 

" Our practice is not to churn the milk until it becomes 
thick or loppered, the milk and cream is then churned toge- 
ther. The temperature of the milk is about fifty degrees. In 
warm weather about a quart of cold water is put in each pan 
before the milk is strained, so as to keep it sweet as long as 
possible. The cellar-floor is brick. This in warm weather is 
daily cleansed with cold water. A drain from the cellar car- 
ries off the water thus applied. The churn is filled about half 
full with milk, with the addition of two pails of cold water be- 
fore starting the churn. In cold weather the same quantity 
of warm water is applied. When the churning is finished, 
which usually occupies about two hours of time, there are 
then two more pails of cold water applied to raise the butter 
and cool it. 

The butter is then taken out of the churn and put in a large 
tray ; this is immediately filled with cold water, and the butter 
carefully washed ; after which the water is thrown off. The 
butter now undergoes the process of salting ; it is then placed 
in a cool situation, where it stands about an hour, and is work- 
ed carefully over. This finished, it is placed in the same situ- 
ation as before, where it stands three or four hours, and is 
again worked over ; again replaced for five or six hours, when 
it is worked over for the third time. It is now replaced, where 
it stands till the next morning, and worked over for the fourth 
time. A small quantity of nitre is then put in the butter. 
Thus finished, it is placed in firkins holding about eighty-five 
pounds. 

Previous to packing, the firkin is scalded with hot water, 
rinsed and cooled with cold water, then rubbed all around 
with fine salt ; this prevents the butter from adhering to the 



72 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

sides of the firkin. When the firkin is full, a linen cloth is 
placed over the top of the butter ; on this cloth a covering of 
salt is put one inch deep, and cold water enough added to it 
to form a brine. It then stands till it is to be sent to market, 
when the cloth and salt are removed, the firkin turned down, 
the top of the butter in the keg washed with cold water, and 
the pickle drained off. The firkin is now neatly headed up 
and sent to market." 

The salt added to the butter should be from l-24th to 1-2 8th 
of its weight, or about two-thirds of an ounce to a pound, and 
this must be of the best quality. All the buttermilk must be 
thoroughly extracted by repeated washings ; and when com- 
pleted, the butter should be immediately packed, and not a 
particle of air allowed to come in contact with it till opened 
for the table. 

CHEESE. 

The Circumstances affecting the Quality of Cheese. 

" All cheese consists essentially of the curd, mixed with a 
certain portion of the fatty matter, and of the sugar of milk. 
But differences in the quality of the milk, in the proportion in 
which the several constituents of milk are mixed together, or 
in the general mode of dairy management, give rise to varieties 
of cheese almost without number. Nearly every dairy district 
produces one or more qualities of cheese peculiar to itself. 

Natural Differences in the Milk 

It is obvious that whatever gives rise to natural differences 
in the quality of the milk, must affect also that of the cheese 
prepared from it. If the milk be poor in butter, so must the 
cheese be. If the pasture be such as to give a milk rich in 
cream, the cheese will partake of the same quality. If the 
herbage or other food affect the taste of the milk or cream, it 
will also modify the flavor of the cheese. 

Milk of Different Animals. 

So the milk of different animals will give cheese of unlike 
qualities. The ewe-milk cheeses of Tuscany, Naples, and 
Languedoc, and those of goats' milk made on Mont Dor and 
elsewhere, are celebrated for qualities which are not possessed 
by cheeses prepared from cows' milk in a similar way. Buf- 
falo milk also gives a cheese of peculiar qualities, which is 
manufactured in some parts of the Neapolitan territory." 



BUTTERMILK CHEESE. 73 

Other kinds of cheese are made from mixtures of the milk 
of different animals. Thus the strong-tasted cheese of Lecca 
and the celebrated Roquefort cheese are prepared from mix- 
tures of goat with ewe milk, and the cheese of Mont Cenis 
from both of these mixed with the milk of the cow. 

Creamed or Uncreamed Milk, 

Still further differences are produced, according to the pro- 
portion of cream which is left in or is added to the milk. 
Thus, if cream only be employed, Ave have the rich cream- 
cheese which must be eaten in a comparatively recent state. 
Or, if the cream of the previous night's milking be added to 
the new milk of the morning, we may have such cheese as the 
Stilton of England, or the small, soft, and rich Brie cheeses, 
so much esteemed in France. 

If the entire milk only be used, we have such cheeses as the 
Cheshire, the Double Gloucester, the Cheddar, the Wiltshire, 
and the Dunlop cheeses of Britain, the Kinnegad cheese of 
Ireland, and the Gouda and Edam cheeses of Holland. Even 
here, however, it makes a difference, whether the warm milk 
from the cow is curdled alone, as at Gouda and Edam, or 
whether it is mixed with the milk of the evening before, as is 
generally done in Cheshire and Ayrshire. Many persons are 
of opinion that cream, which has once been separated, can 
never be so well mixed again with the milk, that a portion of 
the fatty matter shall not flow out with the whey and render 
the cheese less rich. 

If the cream of the evening's milk be removed, and the 
slammed milk added to the new milk of the next morning, 
such cheeses as the Single Gloucester are obtained. If the 
cream be taken once from all the milk, the better kinds of 
skimmed-milk cheese, such as the Dutcli cheese of Leyden, 
are prepared ; while if the milk be twice skimmed, Ave have 
the poorer cheeses of Friesland and Groningen. If skimmed 
for three or four days in succession, Ave get the hard and horny 
cheeses of Essex and Sussex, Avhich often require the axe to 
break them up. 

Buttermilk Cheese. 

But poor or butterless cheese Avill also differ in quality ac- 
cording to the state of the milk from Avhich it is extracted. If 
the neAv milk be allowed to stand to throw up its cream, and 
this be then removed in the usual way, the ordinary skimmed- 



74 domestic a:u:,ials. 

milk ^lieese will be obtained by adding ennet to the milk, 
But if, instead of skimming, we allow the milk to stand till \& 
begins to sour, and then remove the butter by churning the 
whole, we obtain the milk in a sour state, {buttermilk.) From 
this milk the curd separates naturally hy gentle heating. But 
being thus prepared from sour milk, and without the use of 
rennet, buttermilk cheese differs more or less in quality from 
that which is made from sweet sk : mmed-milk. The acid in 
the buttermilk, especially after it has stood a day or two, is 
capable of coagulating new milk also ; and thus, hy mixing more 
or less sweet milk with the buttermilk befoie it is warmed,, 
several other qualities of mixed butter and sweet-milk cheese 
may readily be manufactured. 

Whey Cheese; 

The whey which separates from the curd,- and especially the 
white whey, which is pressed out towards the last, contains a 
portion of curd, and not unfrequently a considerable quantity 
of butter also. When the whey is heated, the curd and but- 
ter rise to the surface, and are readily skimmed off. This curd 
alone will often yield a cheese of excellent quality,, and so rich 
in butter, that a very good imitation of Stilton cheese may 
sometimes be made with alternate layers of new-milk curd and 
this curd of whey. 

Mixtures o-f Vegetable Substances with the Milfe, 

New varieties of cheese are formed by mixing vegetable sub- 
stances with the curd. A green decoction of two parts of sage 
leaves, one of marigold, and a little parsley, gives its color to 
the green cheese of Wiltshire ; some even mix up the entire 
leaves with the curd. The celebrated Schabzieger cheese of 
Switzerland, is nraade by crushing the skim-milk cheese after it 
is several: months old to fine powder in a mill, mixing it then 
with one-tenth of its weight of fine salt, and one-twentieth of 
the powdered leaves of the mellilot trefoil, (trifolium melilotus 
eerulea,) and afterwards with oil or butter, Avoiking the whole 
into a paste, which is pressed and carefully dried. 

Potato Chemsy 

As they are called, are made in. various ways. One pound' 
of sour milk is mixed with five pounds of boiled potatoes and 
a little salt,, and the whole is bear, into a pulp> which, tftey 



PREPARATION OF RENNET SALTING THE STOMACH. 75 

standing five or six days, is worked up again, and then dried 
in the usual way. Others mix three parts of dried boiled po- 
tatoes with two of fresh curd, or equal weights, or more curd 
than potato, according to the quality required. Such cheeses 
are made in Thuringia, in Saxony, and in other parts of Ger- 
many. In Savoy, an excellent cheese is made by mixing one 
of the pulp of potatoes with three of ewe-milk curd ; and in 
Westphalia, a potato cheese is made with skimmed milk. 

Preparation of Ren net. 

Rennet is prepared from the salted stomach or intestines of 
the sucking calf, the unweaned lamb, the young kid, or even 
the young pig. In genera 1 however, the stomach of the calf 
is preferred, and there are a irious ways of curing and preserv- 
ing it. 

The stomach of the newly killed animal contains a quantity 
of curd derived from the milk on which it has been fed. In 
most districts, it is usual to remove by a gentle washing the 
curd and slimy matters which are present in the stomach, as 
they are supposed to impart a strong taste to the cheese. In 
Cheshire, the curd is frequently sal Led separately for immediate 
use. In Ayrshire and Limburg, on the other hand, the curd 
is always lefc in the stomach and salted along with it. Some 
even give the calf a copious draught of milk shortly before it 
is killed, in o.der that the stomach may contain a larger quan- 
tity of the valuable curd. 

Salting the Stomach. 

In the mode of salting the stomach, similar differences pre- 
vail. Some me elv put a few handfuls of salt into and around 
it, then roll it together, and hang it near the chimney to dry. 
Others salt it in a pickle for a few days, and then hang it up 
to drj ; while others pack several of them in layers, with much 
salt both within and without, and preserve them in a cool 
place, till the cheese- making season of the following year. 
They are then taken out, drained from the brine, spread upon 
a table, sprinkled with salt which is rolled in with a wooden 
roller, and then hung up to dry. In some foreign countries, 
the recent stomach is minced very fine, mixed with salt and 
bread into a paste, put into a bladder, and then dried. In 
Lombardy, the stomach, after being salted and dried, is minced 
and mixed up with salt, pepper, and a little whey or watei 
into a paste, which is preserved fcr use. 



76 DOMESTIC AN1MAL.&. 

In whatever way the stomach or intestine of the calf ia 
prepared and preserved, the almost universal opinion seems to 
be, that it should be kept for 10 or 12 months, before it is 
capable of yielding the best and strongest rennet. If newer 
than 12 months, the rennet is thought to make the cheese 
heave or swell, and become fuf* of eyes or holes. 

Making the Rthnet. 

In making the rennet, different customs also prevail. In 
some districts, a bit of the dried stomach is put into half a 
pint of lukewarm water, with as much salt as will lie upon a 
shilling, is allowed to stand over night, and in the morning the 
infusion is poured into the milk. For a cheese of 60 lbs. 
weight, a piece of the size of a dollar will often be sufficient, 
though of some skins as much as 10 square inches are required 
to. produce the same effect. It is, however, more common to 
take the entire stomach, and to pour upon them from one to 
three quarts of water for each stomach, and to allow them to 
infuse for seveial days. If only one has been infused, and the 
rennet is intended for immediate use, the infusion requires only 
to be skimmed and strained. But if several be infused, or as 
many as have been provided for the whole season, about two 
quarts of water are taken for each, and, after standing not 
more than two days, the infusion is poured off, and is com- 
pletely saturated with salt. During the summer it is constantly 
skimmed, and fresh salt added from time to time. Or a strong 
brine may at once be poured upon the skins, and the infusion, 
when the skins are taken out, may be kept for a length of 
time. Some even recommend, that the liquid rennet should 
not be used until it is at least two months old. When thus 
kept, however, it is indispensable that the water should be 
fully saturated with salt. 

In Ayrshire, and in some other countries, it is customary to 
cut the dried stomach into small pieces, and to put it, with a 
handful or two of salt and one or two quarts of water, into f. 
jar, to allow it to stand for two or three days, afterwards to 
pour upon it another pint for a couple of days, to mix the two 
decoctions, and when strained, to bottle the whole for future 
use. In this state it may be kept for many months. 

In making rennet, some use pure water only, others prefer 
clear whey, others a decoction of leaves, such as those of the 
sweetbriei , the dog-rose, and the bramble, or of aromatic herbs 
ind flowers ; while others again, put in lemons, cloves, maoef 



MOPE IN WHICH THE MILK IS WARMED. 77 

or brandy. These various practices are adopted for the pur- 
pose of making the rennet keep better, of lessening its unpleas- 
ant smell, of preventing any unpleasant taste it might give to 
the curd, or finally of directly improving the flavor of the 
cheese. The acidity of the lemon will, no doubt, increase also 
the coagulating power of any rennet to which it may be added. 
The rennet thus prepared is poured into the milk previously 
raised to the temperature of 90° or 95° F., and is intimately 
mixed with it. The quantity which it is necessary to add 
varies with the quality of the rennet, from a tablespoonful to 
half a pint for 30 or 40 gallons of milk. The time necessary 
for the complete fixing of the curd varies also from 15 minutes' 
to an hour or even an hour and a half. The chief causes of 
this variation, are the temperature of the milk, and the quality 
and quantity of the rennet employed. 

Different Qualities of Cheese. 

The temperature of new or entire milk, when the rennet is 
added, should be raised (o about 95° F. ; that of skimmed 
milk need not be quite so high. If the milk be warmer the 
curd is hard and tough, if colder, it is soft and difficult to ob- 
tain free from the whey. When the former happens to be 
the case, a portion of the first whey that separates may be 
taken out into another vessel, allowed to cool, and then poured 
in again. If it prove to have been too cold, hot milk or water 
may be added to it ; or a vessel containing hot water may be 
put into it before the curdling commences ; or the first portion 
of whey that separates may be heated and poured again upon 
the curd. The quality of the cheese, however, will always be 
more or less affected, when it happens to be necessary to adopt 
any of these remedies. To make the best cheese, the * v ue 
temperature should always be attained as nearly as possibL, 
before the rennet is added. 

Mode in which the Milk is warmed. 

If, as is the case in some dairies, the milk be warmed in an 
iron pot upon the naked fire, great care must be taken that it is 
not singed or fire-fanged. A very slight inattention may cause 
this to be the case, and the taste of the cheese is sure to be 
more or less affected by it. In Cheshire, the milk is put into 
a large tin pail, which is plunged into a boiler of hot water, 
and frequently stirred till it is raised to the proper tempera- 
ture. In large dairy establishments, however, the safest 



78 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

method is to lave a pot with a double bottom, consisting ol 
one pot within another, after the manner of a glue-pot ; the 
space between the two being filled with water. The fire ap- 
plied beneath, thus acts only upon the water, and can never, 
by any ordinary neglect, do injury to the milk. It is desirable 
in this heating, not to raise the temperature higher than is ne- 
cessary, as a great heat is apt to give an oilin a ss to the fattv 
matter of the milk. 

The time during which the Curd stands. 

• This is also of importance. It should be broken up as soon 
as the milk is fully coagulated. The longer it stands after this, 
the harder and tougher it will become. 

The quality of the Rennet. 

This is of much importance, not only in regard to the cer- 
tainty of the coagulation, but also to the flavor of the cheese. 
In some parts of Cheshire, it is usual to take a piece of the 
dried membrane and steep it overnight with a little salt for 
the ensuing morning's milk. It is thus sure to be fresh and 
sweet, if the dried maw be in good preservation. But where 
it is customary to steep several skins at a time, and to bottle 
the rennet for after-use, it is very necessary to saturate the 
solution completely with salt, and to season it with spices, in 
order that it may be preserved in a sweet and wholesome 
state. 

The quantity of Rennet added. 

This ought to be regulated as carefully as the temperature 
of the milk. Too much renders the curd tough; too little 
causes the loss of much time, and may permit a larger portion 
of the butter to separate itself from the curd. It is to be ex- 
pected also, that when rennet is used in great excess, a portion 
of it Avill remain in the curd, and will naturally affect the kind 
and rapidity of the changes it afterwards undergoes. Thus, 
it is said to cause the cheese to heave or swell out from fer- 
mentation. It is probable, also, that it will affect the flavor 
wluVh the cheese acquires by keeping. Thus it may be, that 
the agreeable or unpleasant taste of the cheeses of certain dis- 
tricts or dairies may be less due to the quality of the pastures 
or of the milk itself, than to the quantity of rennet with which 
it has there been customary to coagulate the milk. 



THE WAY TX WHICH THE CUR© 53 TREATED. 78 

The way in which the Rennet h made. 

This, no less than its state of preseivation and the quantity 
employed, may also influence the flavor or other qualities of 
the cheese. For instance, in the manufacture of a celebrated 
French cheese, that of Epoisse, the rennet is prepared as fol- 
lows : — Four fresh calf-skins, with the curd they contain, are 
well washed in water, chopped into small pieces, and digested 
in a mixture of 5 quarts of brandy with 15 of water, adding 
at the same time 2| lbs. of salt, half an ounce of black pepper, 
and a quarter of an ounce each of -cloves and ferine? seeds. At 
the end of six weeks, the Jiquor is filtered and preserved in 
well-corked bottles, while the membrane is put into salt-water 
to form a new portion of jennet. For making rich cheeses, 
the rennet should always be altered clear. 

On Mont d'Or, the rennet is made with white wine and vin- 
egar. An ounce of common salt is dissolved in a mixture of 
half a pint of vinegar with 2| pints of white wine, and in this 
solution a prepared goat's stomach or a -piece of dried pig's 
Madder is steeped for a length of time. A single spoonful 
of this rennet is said to be sufficient for 45 or 50 quarts of 
milk. No doubt the acid of the vinegar and of the wine aid 
the coagulating power derived from the membrane. 

The way in which tfis Card is treated, 

It is usual in our best cheese districts, carefully and sloAvly 
to separate the curd from the whey, not to hasten the separa- 
tion, lest a larger portion of the fatty matter should be squeezed 
out o£ the curd, and the cheese should thus be rendered poorer 
than usual. But in some places, the practice prevails of wash- 
ing the curd with hot water, afier the whey has been partially 
separated from it. Thus at Gouda in Holland, after the 
greater part of the whey has been gradually removed, a quan- 
tity of hot water is added, and allowed to remain upon it for 
at least a quarter of an hour. The heat makes the cheese more 
solid and causes it to keep better. 

In Italy, the pear-shaped caceio-cavallo cheeses and the 
round palloni cheeses of Gravina, in the Neapolitan territory, 
are made from curd, which after being scalded with boiling 
whey, is cut into slices, kneaded in boiling water, worked with 
the hand till it is perfectly tenacious and elastic, and then 
made into shapes. The water in which the curd is washed, 
after standing twenty-four hours, throws up much oily matter, 
which is skimmed off and made into butter. 



80 ItUMESTIC animals. 



The Separation of the Whey 

Is a part of the process, upon which the quality of the 
cheese in a considerable degree depends. In Cheshire, more 
time and attention is devoted to the perfect extraction of the 
whey than in almost any other district. Indeed, when it is 
considered that the whey contains sugar and lactic acid, which 
may undergo decomposition, and a quantity of rennet which 
may bring on fermentation, by both of which processes the 
flavor of the cheeses must be considerably affee'ed, it will ap- 
pear of great importance that the whey should be as com- 
pletely removed from the curd as it can possibly be. To aid 
in effecting this, a curd-mill, for chopping it fine after the 
whey is strained off, is in use in many of the large English 
dairies, and a very ingenious and effectual pneumatic cheese- 
press for sucking out the whey, was lately invented. 

But the way in which the whey is separated is not a matter 
of indifference, and has much influence upon the quality of 
the cheese. Thus, in Norfolk, according to Marshall, when 
the curd is fairly set, the dairy-maid bares her arm, plunges 
it into the curd, and with the help of her wooden ladle, breaks 
up minutely, and intimately mixes the curds with the whey. 
This she does for ten or fifteen minutes, after which the curd 
is allowed to subside, and the whey is drawn off. By this 
agitation, the whey must carry off more of the butter and the 
cheese must be poorer. 

In Cheshire and Ayrshire, the curd is cut with a knife, but 
is gently used and slowly pressed till it is dry enough to be 
chopped fine, and thus more of the oily matter is retained. 
On the same principle, in making the Stilton cheese, the curd 
is not cut or broken at all, but is pressed gently and with care 
till the whey gradually drains out. Thus the butter and the 
curd remain intermixed, and the rich cheese of Stilton is the 
result. Thus, while it is of importance that all the whey 
should be extracted from the curd, yet the quickest way may 
not be the best. More time and care must be bestowed in 
order to effect this object, the richer the cheese we wish to 
obtain. 

The quality of the milk or of the pastures, may often be 
blamed for the deficiencies in the richness or other qualities of 
cheese, which are in reality due to slight but material differ- 
ences in the mo^e of manufacturing it. 

The hind of salt used, is considered by many to have some 
effect upon the taste of the cheese. Thus the cheese of Gp 



SIZE OF THE CHEESE. 8] 

rome, in the Vosges, is supposed to derive a peculiar tast€ 
from the Lorena salt with which it is cured. In Holland, the 
efficacy of one kind of salt over another for the curing oi 
cheese is generally acknowledged. 

The Mode in which the Salt is applied. 

In making the large Cheshire cheeses, the dried curd, for a 
single cheese of sixty pounds, is broken down fine and divided 
into three equal portions. One of these is mingled with double 
the quantity of salt added to the others, and this is so put into 
the cheese-vat as to form the central part of the cheese. By 
this precaution, the after-salting on the surface is sure to pene- 
trate deep enough to cure effectually the less salted parts. 

In the counties of Gloucester and Somerset the curd is 
pressed without salt, and the cheese, when formed, is made to 
absorb the whole of the salt afterwards through its surface. 
This is found to answer well with the small and thin cheeses 
made in those counties, but were it adopted for the large 
cheeses of Cheshire and Dunlop, or even for the pine-apple 
cheeses of Wiltshire, there can be no doubt that their quality 
would frequently be injured. It may not be impossible to 
cause salt to penetrate into the very heart of a large cheese, 
but it cannot be easy in this way to salt the whole cheese 
equally, while the care and attention required must be greatly 
increased. 

Addition of Cream or Butter to the Curd. 

Another mode of improving the quality of cheese, is by the 
addition of cream or butter to the dried and crumbled curd. 
Much diligence, however, is required fully to incorporate these, 
so that the cheese may be uniform throughout. Still this 
practice gives a peculiar character to the eheeses of certain 
districts. In Italy, they make a cheese after the manner of the 
English, into which a considerable quantity of butter is work- 
ed ; and the Reckem cheese of Belgium is made by adding 
half an ounce of butter and the yolk of an egg, to every pound 
of pressed curd. 

Size of the Cheese. 

From the same milk, it is obvious that cheeses of different 
sizes, if treated in the same way, will, at the end of a given 
number of months, possess qualities in a considerable degree 
different. Hence, without supposing any inferiority, either in 



82 DOMESTIC tXiMALS. 

the milk or in the general mode of treatment, the size usually 
adopted for the cheeses of a particular district or dairy, may 
be the cause of a recognised inferiority in some quality, which 
it is desirable that they should possess in a high degree. 



The Method of Curing. 

This has very much influence upon the quality of the 
cheese. The care with which they are salted, the warmth of 
the place in which they are kept during the first two or three 
weeks, the temperature and closeness of the cheese-room in 
which they are afterwards preserved, the frequency of turn- 
ing, of cleaning from mould, and rubbing with butter ; all 
these circumstances exercise a remarkable influence upon the 
after- qualities of the cheese. Indeed, in very many instances, 
the high reputation of a particular dairy district or dairy 
farm, is derived from some special attention to some or to all 
of these apparently minor points. 

In Tuscany, the cheeses, after being hung up for some time 
at a proper distance from the fire, are put to ripen in an un- 
derground, cool, and damp cellar ; and the celebrated French 
cheeses of Roquefort, are supposed to owe much of the 
peculiar estimation in which they are held, to the cool and 
uniform temperature of the subterranean caverns in which 
the inhabitants of ":he village have long been accustomed to 
preserve them. 

Anmioniacal Cheese. 

The influence of the mode of curing, is shown very stri- 
kingly in the small ammoniacal cheeses of Brie, which are 
very much esteemed in Paris. They are soft impressed 
cheeses, which are allowed to ripen in a room, the tempera- 
ture of which is kept between 60° and 70° Fahrenheit, till 
they begin to undergo the putrefactive fermentation, and emit 
an ammoniacal odor. They are generally unctuous, and some- 
times so small as not to weigh more than an ounce. 



Inoculating Cheese, 

It is said that a cheese, possessed of no very striking taste 
of its own, may be inoculated with any flavor we approve, 
by putting into it with a scoop a small portion of the cheese 



INOCULATING CHEESE. 



which we are desirous that it should be made to resemble. 
Of course, this can ap- Fig-. 19. 

ply only to cheeses 
otherwise of equal 
richness, for we could 
scarcely expect to give 
a Gloucester the flavor 
of a Stilton, by mere- 
ly putting into it a 
small portion of a lich 
and esteemed Stilton 
cheese. [Johnston and 
various other authori- 
ties^ 

Fig. 19 is a self -act- 
in j cheese-press, light 
yet strong. The cheese 
itself gives a pressure 
of twelve times its 
own weight ; and if 
this is insufficient, ad- 
ditional weight may 
be added as required. Cheese-Press. 

The following statements were made by those receiving 
premiums from the New York State Agricultural Society : 

" Number of cows kept, eleven. Cheese made from two 
.nilkincfs, in, the English manner : no addition made of cream. 
For a cheese of twenty pounds, a piece of rennet about two 
inches square is soaked about twelve hours in one pint of 
water. As rennets differ much in quality, enough should be 
used to coagulate the milk sufficiently in about forty minutes. 
No salt is put into the cheese, nor any on the outside during 
the first six or eight hours it is pressed ; but a thin coat of 
fine Liverpool salt is kept on the outside during the remainder 
of the time it remains in press. The cheeses are pressed 
forty-eight hours, under a weight of seven or eight cwt. 
Nothing more is required but to turn the cheeses once a day 
on the shelves." 

" The milk is strained »n large tubs over night ; the cream 
stirred in milk, and in the morning strained in same tub ; milt 
heated to natural heat ; add color and rennet ; curd broke 
tine and whey off, and broke fine in hoop with fast bottom, 
and put in strainer ; pressed twelve hours ; then taken from 




84 DOMESTIC YVIMALS. 

hoop, and salt rubbed on the surface ; then put in hoop, 
without strainer, and pressed forty-eight hours ; then put on 
tables, and salt rubbed on surface, and remain in salt six 
days, for cheese weighing thirty pounds. The hoops to have 
holes in the bottom ; the crushings are saved, and set, and 
churned, to grease the cheese. The above method is for 
making one cheese per day. As in butter-making, the utmost 
cleanliness is required in every part of the cheese-making 
premises." 



CHAPTER IV 



SHEEP 

With the exception, of the dog, there is no one of the brute 
creation which exhibits the diversity of size, color, form, cov- 
ering, and general appearance, which characterizes the sheep, 
and none which occupies a w r ider range of climate, or subsists 
on a greater variety of food. In every latitude between the 
equator and the arctic, he ranges over the sterile mountains, 
and through the fertile valleys^ He feeds on almost every 
species of edible forage, the cultivated grasses, clovers, cereals 
and roots ; he browses on aromatic and bitter herbs ; he crops 
the leaves and bark from the stunted forest shrubs, and the 
pungent, resinous evergreens. In some parts of Norway and 
Sweden, when other resources fail, he subsists on fish or flesh 
during their long and rigorous winters, and if reduced to 
necessity, he eats his own wool. 

He is diminutive like the Orkney, or massive like the Tees- 
water. He is policerate or many horned ; "he has two large 01 
small spiral horns like the Merino, or is polled or hornless like 
the mutton sheep. He has a long tail like our own breeds ; a 
broad tail, like many of the eastern ; or a mere button of a tail, 
like the fat-rumps, discernible only by the touch. His coat is 
sometimes long and coarse, like the Lincolnshire ; short and 
hairy, like those of Madagascar ; soft and furry, like the 
Angola ; or fine and spiral, like the silken Saxon. His color, 
either pure or fancifully mixed, varies from the white or black 
of our own country, to every shade of brown, dun, buff, blue, 
and gray, like the spotted flocks of the Cape of Good Hope 



SH»*EP. 85 

and other parts of Afiica and Asia. This wide di\ ersity is the 
result of long domestication under almost every conceivable 
variety of condition 

Uses. 

Among the antediluvians, sheep were immolated for sacri- 
ficial offerings, and their fleeces probably furnished them with 
clothing. Since the deluge, their flesh has with all nations 
been used as a favorite food for man. By many of the 
rude, roving nations of the East, they are employed in carry- 
ing burdens. 

Their milk is generally used by the uncivilized, and to some 
extent by the refined nations of Europe, not only as a bev- 
erage, but for making into cheese, butter, and curds. Job re- 
fers to its use, as do Isaiah and other of the Old Testament 
writers. Most of the Greek and Roman authors describe its 
general use and manufacture. The ewe's milk scarcely differs 
in appearance from that of the cow, but is generally thicker, 
and yields a pale, yellowish butter, that is always soft and 
soon becomes rancid. Culley remarks, " the cheese from their 
milk is exceedingly pungent, and for that reason is preferred by 
many to that from the cow." In Wales, the milk is mixed 
with that of^the dairy, and makes a tart, palatable cheese. 
We have never seen it appropriated for dairy purposes in the 
United States, except by a few Welsh and Highland emigrants. 
The sheep is frequently employed in the dairy regions of this 
country, at the tread-mill or horizontal wheel, to pump the 
water, churn the milk, or perform other light domestic work. 

The dignity and importance of the shepherd's vocation 
have ever been conspicuous. Abel, the supposed twin-brother 
of the first-bom of the human race, w r as a " keeper of sheep ;" 
and from this, it may be fail ly inferred, that there is no ani- 
mal which has so long been under the immediate control of 
man. Abraham and his descendants, as well as most of the 
ancient patriarchs, were shepherds. Job had 14,000 sheep. 
It is said of Rachel, the favored mother of the Jewish race, 
" she came with her father's sheep, for she kept them." The 
seven daughters of the priest of Midian, " came and drew 
water for their father's flocks." Moses, the statesman and law- 
giver, who " was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, 
kept the flocks of Jethro, his father-in-law ;" and David, the 
future monarch of Israel, the hero, poet, and divine, was a 
keeper of sheep. It was to shepherds, while " abiding in the 
field, keeping watch over their flocks by night," that the 

8 



86 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

birth of the Saviour was announced. The root of the Hebrew 
name for sheep, signifies fruitfulness, abundance, plenty ; as 
indicating the blessings they were destined to confer on the 
human race. With the sacred writers, they were the chosen 
symbol of purity and the gentler virtues ; they were the 
victims of propitiatory sacrifices ; and finally, they became the 
type of redemption to fallen man. These may not be considered 
accidental allusions in a book, whose every feature is full of 
design. 

Nor has the sheep been less the subject of eulogy and at- 
tention with profane writers. Among these, Homer and 
Hesiod, Virgil and Theocritus, introduced them with evident 
delight in their pastoral themes ; while their heroes and demi- 
gods, Hercules and Ulysses, ^Eneas and Numa, carefully per- 
petuated them throughout their regal domains. 

In modern times, they have commanded the attention of the 
most enlightened nations ; and their prosperity has in no in- 
stance been independent of those useful animals, wherever wool 
and its manufactures have been regarded as essential staples. 
Spain and Portugal, for more than two centuries, were the 
most enterprising nations of Europe, and during that period, 
they excelled in the production and manufacture of wool. 
Flanders, for a time, was before England in the perfection of 
the arts and the enjoyments of life, and England then sent the 
little wool she raised to that country to be manufactured. Her 
politic sovereigns soon found this a losing game, and offered 
large bounties' for the importation of artists and machinery. 
By a systematic and thorough course of legislation, which 
looked to the utmost protection and augmentation of wool and 
woollens, she has carried their production beyond any thing 
the world has ever se*.n. The small islands of Great Britain 
and Ireland, in addition to the support of their 26,000,000 of 
people, 15,000,000 of cattle, 2,250,000 horses, 18,000,000 
swine, and innumerable smaller domestic animals, maintain 
over 40,000,000 sheep, worth $250,000,000 ; and besides 
manufacturing nearly all their fleeces, annually import nearly 
an equal amount from abroad. The sumptuary law for bury- 
ing the dead in woollen, still occupies its place in their statute 
book. And beyond all question, England is the leading power 
of the nineteenth century, in the combination of all those qual- 
ities which constitute national greatness, civilization, and 
strength 



THE DOMES! 3ATED SHEEP. 87 



VARIETIES 



Naturalists have divided the wild sheep into four varieties. 
The Musimon, (Ovis Musimon,) inhabiting Corsica, Sardinia, 
and other islands of the Mediterranean, the mountainous parts 
of Spain and Greece, and some other regions bordering upon 
that inland sea, have been frequently domesticated and mixed 
with the long-cultivated breeds. 

The Argali, (0. Ammon,) ranges over the steppes, or ele- 
vated plains of Central Asia, northward and eastward to the 
ocean. They are larger, more hardy, and more untameable 
than the Musimon. 

The Rocky Mountain Sheep, (0. Montana,) frequently called 
the Big-horn by our western hunters, is found on the prairies 
west of the Mississippi, and throughout the wild mountainous 
regions, extending through California and Oregon to the Pa- 
cific. They are larger, but in other respects resemble the Ar- 
gali, of which they are probably descendants, as they could 
easily cross upon the ice at Behring's Straits, from the north- 
eastern coast of Asia, Like the Argali, when caught young 
they are easily tamed ; but we are not aware that they have 
ever been bred with the domestic sheep. Before the country 
was overrun by the white man, they probably inhabited the 
region bordering on the Mississippi. Father Hennepin, a 
French Jesuit, who wrote nearly two hundred years ago, often 
speaks of meeting with goats in his travels through what is 
now the territory embraced by Illinois and Wisconsin. The 
wild, clambering propensities of these animals, occupying the 
giddy heights far beyond the reach of the traveller, and the 
outer coating of hair (supplied underneath, however, with a 
thick coating of soft wool) gives to them much of the ap- 
pearance of that animal. In summer they are generally found 
single ; but when they descend from their isolated, rocky 
heights in winter, they are gregarious, marching in flocks un- 
der the guidance of leaders. 

The Bearded Sheep of Africa (0. Tragelaphus) inhabit the 
mountains of Barbary and Egypt. They are covered with a 
soft, reddish hair, and have a mane hano-ino- below the neck, 
and large locks of hair at the ankle. 

The Domesticated Sheep (0. Aries) 

Embraces all the varieties of the subjugated species. Wheth- 
er they have descended from any one of the wild races, is a 



S8 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

question yet undetermined among naturalists ; but howevei 
this may be, many of the varieties apparently differ less from 
their wild namesakes than from each other. 

The faUruwiped and the broad-tailed sheep are much more 
extensively diffused than any other. They occupy nearly all 
the southeastern part of Europe, Western and Central Asia, 
and Northern Africa. They are supposed to be the varieties 
which were propagated by the patriarchs and their descend- 
ants, the Jewish race. This is inferred from various passages 
in the Pentateuch, Exodus xxix. 22 ; Leviticus iii. 9 ; viii. 25 ; 
ix. 19, and some others, where "the fat and the rump" are 
spoken of in connection with offerings, in which the fat was 
always an acceptable ingredient. Dr. Boothroyd renders one 
of the foregoing passages, " the large, fat tail entire, taken 
clear to the rump." It is certain this variety gives indisputa- 
ble evidence of remote and continued subjugation. Their 
long, pendent, drowsy ears, and the highly artificial posterior 
developments, are characteristic of no wild or recently- domes- 
ticated race. 

This breed consists of numerous sub-varieties, differing in 
all their characteristics of size, fleece, color, &c, with quite as 
many and marked shades of distinction as the modern Euro- 
pean varieties. In Madagascar, they are covered with hair ; 
in the south of Africa, with coarse wool ; in the Levant, and 
along the Mediterranean, the wool is comparatively fine ; and 
from that of the fat-rumped sheep of Thibet the exquisite 
Cashmere shawls are manufactured. Both rams and ewes are 
sometimes bred with horns, and sometimes without, and they 
exhibit a great diversity of color. Some yield a carcass of 
scarcely 30 lbs., while others have weighed 200 lbs. dressed. 
The tail or rump varies greatly, according to the purity and 
style of breeding ; some are less than one-eighth, while others 
exceed one-third the entire dressed weight. The fat of the 
rump or tail is considered a great delicacy, and in hot climates 
resembles oil, and in colder, suet. 

The broad-tailed sheep were bi ought into this country, 
about 50 years since, by Commodore Barron and Judge Pe- 
ters, and ufed with the native flocks. They were called the 
Tunisian mountain sheep. Some of them were subsequently 
distributed by Col. Pickering, of Massachusetts, among the 
farmers of Pennsylvania ; and their mixed descendants were 
highly prized as prolific and good nurses, coming early to 
maturity, attaining large weights, of a superior quality of car- 
cass, and yielding a heavy fleece of excellent wool. The prio- 



NATIVE OR COMMON SHEEP OF THE U. STATES. &9 

cipal objection brought against them, was the difficulty of 
propagation, which always required the assistance of the shep- 
herd. The lambs were dropped white, red, tawny, bluish, or 
black , but all excepting the black, grew white as they ap- 
proached maturity, retaining some spots of the original color 
on the cheeks and legs, and sometimes having the entire head 
tawny or black. The few which descended from those origin- 
ally imported into this country, have become blended with 
American flocks, and are now scarcely distinguishable from 
them. 

Native or Common Sheep of the United States. 

Strictly speaking, there are no sheep indigenous to North 
America, excepting the Ovis Montana, or Rocky Mountain 
sheep. Before the introduction of the improved European 
breeds, during the present century, our sheep were generally a 
hardy, long-legged, coarse, open-fleeced animal, which yielded, 
according to attention and feed, from 1^ to 4 lbs. of indiffer- 
ent wool. We have seen numerous flocks within the last 20 
years, of the pure-bred native, whose bellies were entirely 
destitute of wool, and sometimes the whole carcass was bare, 
excepting a mere strip or ridge like a mane, reaching from the 
head to the tail. The wool which was retained on the neck, 
back, and sides, was frequently matted almost as firmly as a 
leather apron ; and that on the thighs, and sometimes on the 
sides, was often composed almost wholly of long hair. 

Although indifferently formed in comparison with the best 
breeds of the present day, being thin in the breast and back, 
light quartered, and slow in coming to maturity, they yet pos- 
sessed some good qualities. They were prolific, excellent 
nurses, tallowed well, and yielded good mutton. There were, 
occasionally some smutty-nosed or brockle-faced sheep among 
them, distinguished by their additional size, superior merits, 
and courage. These were usually the leaders of the flock, in 
their marauding expeditions on their neighbor's domains ; and 
in common with tire others, they were eminently adapted to 
purvey for themselves on the frontier settlements. There 
w^ere, besides, some black or dark chocolate-brown members 
in every flock, which were much valued by the thrifty house- 
wife for their wool, which afforded an economical mixture for 
jackets, hose, and trousers, known as sheep's gray. 

Our original stock were principally derived from England, 
where their counterparts may be seen at the present day, in 
the refuse breeds of that country When these sheep were 



90 DOMES'l it VNIMALS. 

well selectee, and properly bred, there was rapid and satisfae- 
ory improvement, and from such flocks, mixed with some of 
Jie more recently improved varieties, have sprung many valu- 
able animals. 

There was but one exception to this general character of 
the native flocks, so far as our observation extended, which 
was a considerably numerous, and, probably, accidental varie- 
ty, known as the Otter breed, or Creepers. These were an ex- 
cessively duck-legged animal, with well-formed bodies, full 
chest, broad backs, yielding a close heavy fleece of medium 
quality of wool. They were deserved favorites where indiffer- 
ent stone or wood fences existed, as their power of locomo- 
tion was absolutely limited to their enclosures, if protected by 
a fence not less than two feet high. The quality of their 
mutton was equal, while their aptitude to fatten was decidedly 
superior to their longer-legged contemporaries. They are 
probably now nearly or quite extinct. 

An excellent variety was produced by General Washington, 
from a cross of a Persian ram, upon the Bakewell, which bore 
wool 14 inches in length, soft and silky, and admirably suited 
to combing. They were called the Arlington sheep, but they 
have long since become incorporated with the other flocks of 
the country. 

The Merino. 

This is undoubtedly one of the most ancient race of sheep 
extant. The loose descriptions and indefinite generalities of 
the ancient writers, leave much to conjecture on this point ; 
yet we have a few passages from Pliny, Columella, and some 
other Roman authors, which leave little doubt that the Merino 
was bred in their age, and had even been introduced into 
Italy from Greece. It is a matter of history, that the Greeks 
had choice breeds of sheep at an early day, Avhich they 
might have derived from Egypt, Tyre, and Asia Minor, as 
they were intimately connected in commerce with those coun- 
tries, where the woollen manufacture early reached great per- 
fection. It is supposed that the celebrated Argonautic ex- 
pedition, in quest of the golden fleece, undertaken by the 
Greeks nearly 1300 years before Christ, resulted in procuring 
a valuable rase of sheep from Colchis, in the Euxine. 

However this may be, it is certain that when Augustus ex- 
tended his peaceful sceptre over half the known world, the 
Romans were in post assinn of som 3 flocks, bearing fleeces of 



THE MERINO. 91 

exceeding fineness and beauty. They had been reared in the 
province of Apulia, on the southeast coast of Italy, and 
were called Tarentine, from Tarentum, the capital of the 
province. Here, then, may have been one branch of the 
Merino family. 

Another is undoubtedly described by Pliny, who says, " the 
red fleece of Bee ilea was of still superior quality, and had no 
fellow." All the Spanish coast on the Mediterranean, of 
which Bsetica formed a considerable part, comprising the 
modern Spanish provinces of Jaen, Cordova, Seville, An- 
dalusia, and Granada, was early colonized by the enterprising 
Greeks ; and this red fcece that had no fellow, was probably 
introduced by them at an early day, and by their descend- 
ants had been carried to a still higher degree of perfection 
than that of Apulia. Columella, the uncle of the writer on 
agriculture, a wealthy emigrant to Spain fiom Italy, a. d. 30, 
carried with him some of the Tarentine sheep, and thus added 
to the fine-woolled sheep of Spain. These two ancient streams, 
united pei haps with a third from the more ancient stock of 
the Euxine, (for Strabo asseits that some of the finest- woolled 
sheep were brought fiom that region in his time, and sold for 
the enormous sum of $750,) flowed on in an uninterrupted 
current over that broad country, and brought down to 
modern times the unrivalled race of the Merino. The limited 
region of Italy, overrun as it repeatedly was by hordes of 
barbarians during and after the times of the late emperors, 
soon lost her pampered flocks ; while the extended regions of 
Spain, intersected in every direction by almost impassable 
mountains, could maintain their more hardy race, in defiance 
of revolution or change. 

Whatever distrust may be attached to these scraps of history, 
which apparently establish the remote antiquity of the Merino, 
this much is absolutely certain, that they are a race whose quali- 
ties are inbred, to an extent surpassed by no others. They 
have been improved in the general weight and evenness of their 
fleece, as in the celebrated flock of Rambouillet ; in the uni- 
foimity and excessive fineness of fibre, as in the Saxons ; and in 
their form and feeding qualities, in various countries ; but 
there has never yet been deterioration either in quantity or 
quality of fleece or carcass, wherever transported, if supplied 
with suitable food and attention. Most sheep annually she<? 
their wool if undipped ; while the Merino retains its fleece, 
sometimes for five years, when allowed to remain unshorn. 
This we conceive affords conclusive evidence of long-cop 



92 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

tinued breeding among themselves, by which the very con- 
stitution of the wool-producing organs beneath the skin have 
become permanently established ; and this property is trans- 
mitted to a great extent even among the crosses, thus marking 
them as an ancient and peculiar race. 

The conquest by the Moors of a part of those fine prov- 
inces in the south of Spain, so far from checking, served 
rather to encourage the production of fine wool. They were 
not only enterprising, but highly skilled in the useful arts, 
and carried on extensive manufactories of fine woollen goods, 
which they exported to different countries. After their ex- 
pulsion in the 15th century, by Ferdinand and Isabella, the 
Spaniards preserved these manufactures in part, and sedu- 
.ously cherished their fine flocks ; and knowing the incompar- 
ible advantage they had in them, their sovereigns, except in 

few isolated instances, strictly prohibited their exportation. 

Exportation of Merinoes from Spain. 

History asserts that Henry VIII. of England, by permission 
of Charles V., imported 3,000 Spanish sheep ; but of what 
kind is not mentioned, they having numerous varieties in 
Spain. If of the true Merino, it will explain the superior 
quality of the English middle-wools, the Ryeland, South 
Downs, and some others. 

The first well-authenticated exportation of the Spanish 
Merino, was made to Sweden in 1*723, by Alstroemer, which 
solved the problem of their capacity for sustaining their 
character, on rough fare and in a high northern latitude. 
Lasteyrie, who wrote fifty years after the experiment had 
been tried, speaks of their improvement, both in carcass and 
the quality and quantity of fleece. 

The next exportation was made to Saxony, in 1765, and 
consisted of 105 rams and 114 ewes, but from what flocks 
they were taken, history nowhere mentions. A second ex- 
portation to that country was made in 1778, of 110 that 
were variously selected, from the best flocks in Spain. From 
these have descended the high-bred, silken-fleeced Saxons, 
whose wool stands confessedly without a rival. 

In 1775, the Empress Maria Theresa imported 300 Merinoes 
into Germany, and placed them on the imperial farm in Hun- 
gary. In 17S6, an importation was made into Denmark and 
her provinces; and again, in 1797, another flock of 300 was 
brought into tb Q . kingdom, and placed at Esserum, about eight 



IMPORTATION OF MERINOES. 93 

leagues from Copenhagen. In 1786, 100 rams and 200 ewes 
were imported into Prussia, most of which were allowed to 
perish from neglect and disease ; but their places were fully 
made up by later importations. The same year, 400 ewes 
and rams were selected from the choicest Spanish flocks, and 
placed on the royal farm of Rambouillet, in France, which 
laid the foundation of the celebrated flock which bears that 
name. 

A small flock of inferior animals was clandestinely procured 
by George III., of England, in 1788, which attracted little 
attention. In 1791, a small but choice flock was presented 
to that monnrch by the Cortes of Spain, which soon acquired 
high favor among many intelligent breeders. A part of these 
were kept pure, and their descendants furnished the superb 
flock of 700 Nigrettis, which procured for their owner, Mr. 
Trimmer, in 1829, the gold medal from the London Society 
of Arts. Others were mixed with different flocks in the king- 
dom, to the evident improvement of their fleeces. 

The first importation of Merinoes into the United States, 

Which resulted in the propagation of a pure breed,* was 
made. by Chancellor Livingston, then minister at the court of 
Versailles, who sent two choice rams and ewes from the Ram- 
bouillet flock, in 1802, to Claremont, his country seat on the 
Hudson. In the latter part of the same year, Col. Humphreys, 
our minister in Spain, sent out nearly one hundred Merinoes, 
which were followed by more numerous flocks from the same 
and other sources. The largest importations of the Merino, 
however, were made through Mr. Jarvis of Vermont, in 1809, 
then U. S. Consul in Spain, and immediately thereafter. He 
first shipped, as he states, " 200 Escurial, afterwards 1400 
Paulars, 1700 Aqueirres, 100 Nigrettis, and about 200 Mon- 
tarcos. 2700 Montarcos were sent out by a Spaniard and a 
Portuguese, and about 300 Guadaloupes by others ; also 200 
to 300 Paulars, by Gen. Downie, to Boston. Of the Montarco 
flock shipped by others, about 2500 came to Boston, Provi- 
dence, New York, and other ports. All were imported in the 
latter part of 1809 and '10, and early in 1811, and were the 
only Leonese Transhumantes, if we include Humphreys' and 
Livingston's, (which I have no doubt were of the same stock,) 
that were ever shipped to the United States." 

* One or more pure Merinoes were imported into Massachusetts, in the latter 
part of the last century, by a citizen of that state, but they were soon mixed with 
o'her flocks, and resu'.tedin the pernetua'nn of no distinct breed. 



94 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS, 



Fig. 20 is a spirited cut of a variety of the Merino without 
dewlap, and with a long and somewhat open rleece. 




Merino Buck. 

Varieties of the Spanish Sheep, 

Besides several other breeds of sheep in Spain, consisting of 
long, coarse wool, and that o'f a medium staple, embraced 
under the different names of Chorinoes, Choaroes or Chunahs, 
the Merino is dis'inguished by two general divisions; the 
Transhumantes or travelling, and the JEstantes or stationary 
flocks. The former are subdivided, acco -ding to the Provinces 
they occupy, into Leonese, Segovian, and Sorian. Many of 
the Estantes were of the best quality in respect to carcass, 
constitution, and fleece ; and such as were highly bred and in 
the hands of intelligent breeders, were not surpassed by any 
of the Spanish flocks. There were also many choice sheep 
among the Segovian and Soiian Transhumantes, but m gen- 
eral they were decidedly inferior to those of Leon. These 
last were universally regarded as the prime flocks of Spain. 
They comprised the Escurial, the Paular, the Nigretti, the 



VARIETIES ' F THE SPANISH SHEEP. 95 

Aqueirres or Muros, the Montarco, the Guadaloupe, Infantado, 
and some others. 

There is much contradictory testimony as to the comparative 
merits of the las -mentioned flocks, as they were found in Spain ; 
which is owing in part, doubtless, to the difference in the 
specimens subjected to examination. We subjoin some of the 
most reliable authorities on this subject. 

M. Lasteyrie, who investigated this matter closely, says, 
" The Guadaloupe have the most perfect form, and are likewise 
celebrated for the quantity and quality of their wool. The 
Paular bear much wool of a fine quality, but they have a more 
evident enlargement behind the ears, and a greater degree of 
throatiness, and the lambs have a coarse hairy appearance, 
which is succeeded by excellent wool. The lambs of the In- 
fantado have the same hairy coat when young. The Nigretti 
are the largest and strongest of all the travelling sheep in 
Spain." 

Mr. Livingston says, " The Escurial is the most perfect of all 
the travelling flocks in Spain ; the Guadaloupe for form, fine- 
ness and abundance of the fleece ; the Paular with similai 
fleeces are larger bodied. Those of Castile and Leon have the 
largest, with the finest coat. Those of Soria are small, with 
very fine wool ; and those also of Valencia, which do not 
travel, and like the last have fine wool, but of a very short 
staple." 

Mr. Jarvis, who spent many years in Spain, under every 
advantage for studying them closely, and who also imported, 
and has since bred large numbers of them on his estate in Ver- 
mont, gives their characteristics with more particularity, and 
at much greater length : " The Paulars were undoubtedly one 
of the handsomest flocks in Spain. They were of middling 
height, round-bodied, well spread, straight on the back, the 
neck of the bucks rising in a moderate curve from the withers 
to the setting on of the head, their head handsome, with aqui- 
line curve of the nose, with short, fine, glossy hair on the face, 
and generally haiu on the legs, the skin pretty smooth, that is, 
not rolling up or doubling about the neck and body, as in 
some other flocks ; the crimp in the wool was not so short as 
in many other flocks, the wool was somewhat longer, but it 
was close and compact, and was. soft and silky to the touch, 
and the surface was not so much covered with gum. This 
flock was originally owned by the Carthusian friars of Paular, 
who were the best agriculturists in Spain, and was sold by 
that order to the Prince of Peace when he came into power. 



96 .JOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

The Nigretti flock were the tallest Mennoes in Spain, but 
were not handsomely formed, being rather flat-sided, roach- 
back, and the neck inclining to sink down from the withers ; 
the wool was somewhat shorter than the Paular, and more 
crimped; tb* 1 skin was more loose and inclined to double, and 
many of them were woolled on their faces and legs down to 
their hoofs. All the loose-skinned sheep had large dewlaps. 

The Aqueirres were short-legged, round, broad-bodied, with 
loose skins, and were more woolled about their faces and legs 
than any other flock I ever saw ; the wool was more crimped 
than the Paular, and less than the Nigretti, but was thick and 
soft. This flock formerly belonged to the Moors of Spain, 
and at their expulsion was bought by the family of Aqueirres. 
The wool in England was known as the Muros flock, and was 
highly esteemed. All the bucks of these three flocks had 
large horns. 

The Escurials were about as tall as the Paulars, but not 
quite so round and broad, being in general rather more slight 
in their make ; their wool was crimped, but not quite so thick 
as the Paular or Nigretti, nor were their skins so loose as the 
Nigretti and Aqueirres, nor had they so much wool on the 
face and legs. 

The Montarco bore a considerable resemblance to the Escu- 
rials. The Escurial flock had formerly belonged to the crown, 
but when Philip II. built the Escurial palace, he gave them 
to the friars, whom he placed in a convent that was attached 
to the palace, as a source of revenue. These four flocks were 
moderately gummed. 

The Guadeloupe flock was rather larger in the bone than 
the two preceding, about the same height, but not quite so 
handsomely formed ; their wool was thick and crimped, their 
skins loose and doubling, their faces and legs not materially 
different from the two latter flocks, but in general they were 
more gummed than either of the other flocks. In point of 
fineness, there was very little difference between these six 
flocks; and as I have been told by well-informed persons, there 
is very little difference in this respect among the Leonese Trari- 
shumantes in general. The Escurials, the Montarcos, and the 
Guadaioupes, were not, in general, so heavy-horned as the 
other three flocks, and about one in six of the bucks were 
without horns." 

The Saxen, 

We have before seen, is one of the varieties of the pure-bred 



THE SAXON, 



91 



Merino, the foundation of which was laid by an importa,. on of 
some of the choicest animals into Saxony, in IT 65. The great 
care and attention bestowed upon these sheep by the Elector, 
the nobility, and the most intelligent farmers, soon carried them 
to a point of uniformity and excellence of fleece, never exceed- 

Fig.2l. 




Saxon Ram. 

ed by the best of the original flocks. The breeders were se- 
lected with almost exclusive reference to the quality of the 
fleece. Great care was taken to prevent exposure throughout 
the year, and they were housed on every slight emergency. 
The consequence of this course of breeding and treatment has 
been to reduce the size and weight of fleece, and partially to 
impair that hardiness and vigor of constitution, which univer- 
sally characterized the original Transhumantes. In numerous 
instances, this management resulted in permanent injury to the 
character of their flocks, which America has severely felt in 
several importations of worthless animals, and which a too great 
eagerness for improvement induced her flockmasters to use with 
the Spanish Merinoes and their descendants, as a means for 

9 



93 DOMESTIC AUim ,». 

this abject, but which has resulted in the introduction of fatal 
diseases and serious deterioration in their flocks. 

The first Importation of Saxons into this Country 

Was made in 1823, of four good rams, two of which went 
k> Boston and the others to Philadelphia. The next was made 
the following year, and consisted of 75 rams and ewes, which 
were brought to Boston, and sold at public auction, and were 
afterwards scattered over the country. Another lot of 180 
followed the next year, to the same, place, and was sold in the 
same manner, but at an inc; eased price, some selling as high 
as $450 each. 

These prices excited the spiiit of speculation, and the fol- 
lowing year witnessed the importation of near 3,000, many of 
which were decidedly inferior. These were all thrown upon 
the market for the most they would command ; and in many 
instances, the sales not half covering the cost of importation, 
the enterprise was abandoned as a speculation, or commercial 
operation. 

The late Henry D. Grove, of Hoosic, S"ew York, a native of 
Germany, and a highly intelligent and thoroughly bred shep- 
herd, accompanied some of the best early importations to this 
country. He selected 105 choice animals for his own breed- 
ing, which he imported in 182*7, and 10 more equally good, in 
1828, and with these he formed the flock from which he bred 
to the time of his decease, in 1844. 

The average weight of fleece from the entire flock of Mr 
Grove, nearly all of which were ewes and lambs, as stated by 
him to the writer, in 1842, was 2 lbs. 14 ounces, thoroughly 
washed on the sheep's back. This was realized after a short 
summer and winter's keep, when the quantity of hay or its 
equivalent fed to the sheep did not exceed by actual weight 
1-J lbs. per day, except to the ewes, which received an addi- 
tional quantity just before and after lambing. This treatment 
was attended with no disease or loss by death, and with an 
increase of lambs, equalling one for every ewe. 

In a flock of pure Saxony sheep owned by Mr. Smith of 
Connecticut, as stated in a letter from the owner, published in 
the American Shepherd, 104 ewes raised 101 lambs, and 
yielded 341 lbs. of wool, which sold at 70 cents per lb. For 
the 18 months preceding, he lost but three animals out of 300, 
from ordinary casualties. But some flocks of pure Saxony do 
sot, in good condition, average 2 lbs. per head. 



THE RAMBv LTLI ET FLO K. 99 

A recent importation, (May, 1846,) made by Mr. Taintor 
of Connecticut, consisting of four bucks and four ewes, from 
the celebrated Saxon flock of Baron de Spreck, show a size 
and apparent vigor of constitution, equalling any of their Me- 
rino progenitors. 

Fig. 22. 



Rambouillet Buck. 

The Rambouillet Flock. 

This flock was founded in 1786, by Louis XVI., from a se- 
lection of 400 of the best Spanish sheep, which were placed 
on the royal farm at Rambouillet. These, like the Saxon, re- 
ceived all the attention which intelligence and wealth could 
bestow, and the consequence was soon manifest in their larger 
size, and the increased weight and uniformity in the fineness 
of their fleece ; the last improvement being particularly evi- 
dent, from the absence of the coarse wool, which in many 
cases infested the quarters ; and the jarr or hair, which fre- 
quently abounds on the flanks, legs, and thighs of the original 
Merino. 

Besides the crown flocks at Rambouillet, they are found in 
equal perfection on several other of the royal farms, especially 
those of Malmaison, Perpignan, Aries, Clermont, and some 



100 DOMESTIC ANIMALto. 

others. These flocks have been bred for hardy constitution, 
large carcass, and heavy fleece, and of as much fineness as is 
consistent with large weights, and as uniform in quality through- 
out, as possible. Mr. Gilbert, who was particularly familial 
with them, says, " almost all the fleeces of the rams, from two 
years old and upwards, weigh (unwashed) from 12 to 13 lbs.; 
but the mean weight, taking the rams and the ewes together, 
has not quite attained to 8 lbs., after deducting the tags and 
the wool of "the belly." The French pound is about one-twelfth 
heavier than the English; but from the general custom of 
folding the sheep in France, feeding them in fallows, and win- 
tering them ;n houses, the fleece becomes very dirty. The 
loss in washing (fit for manufacturing) is about 60 percent., 
so that the clean fleece of the ram will average about 6 lbs., 

and that of the whole flock, something under 4 lbs. 

p 

Tiie first Importation of the Rambouillets to this Country. 

This was in 1801, by M. Dellesert, of Paris, for M. Dupont, 
then in New York, and consisted of four choice rams, only one 
of which, Don Pedro, reached this country. He was used 
among the native ewes near Kingston, N. Y., for three years, 
and then transferred to Delaware, where he effected great im- 
provement among the native flocks. The second was that 
made by the late Chancellor Livingston, before alluded to. 
There was another in 1840, by Mr. Collins, of Connecticut, 
c'ompiising 30 select ewes and 2 rams. All these sheep pos- 
sessed the characteristics peculiar to the variety as described. 

A still more recent importation has been made by Mr. Tain- 
tor, at the same time with that of the Saxons previously men- 
tioned, consisting of 23 ewes and 3 bucks, variously selected 
from the choicest flocks of the descendants of the Spanish 
Merino. The rams, though young, are the most promising 
animals of their breed, and when full grown, will weigh from 
225 to 250 lbs. each. The sire of one was sold the past season 
for $500. He sheared 23 lbs. of unwashed wool. The ewes 
measu ^ after they were shorn, from 25| to 29 inches in 
height ©v. the withers. The height of the under side of 
their bodies from the ground, was from 9 J to 12 inches, which 
is in the proportion of good American Merino sheep. Their 
weights varied, after shearing, from 124 to 153 lbs. Some of 
them were quite thin in flesh, the largest especially, which, if 
in fine condition with her fleece on, would weigh at least 200 
lbs. The following is the weight of their fleeces unwashed 



PROGRESS OF THE MERINO IN THE J STATES. 101 

The scales used did not mark less than one-quarter of a 
pound, which will account for the absence of odd ounces. 

No.' 17 13 lbs. No. 100 12J lbs. 

" 27 15 " " 109 ..17 " 

" 64 16| " " 110 17 « 

« 71 14* " " 117 ' 16f « 

" 84 164 " " H8 15| ' 

" 87 16{ " " 133 14} " 

"'94 17 " " 195 ..13^" 

It was the unbiased opinion of several wool-dealers present, 
that the shearing above would yield at least 35 lbs. of 
cleansed wool, fitted for manufacturing without further loss, 
out of every 100 lbs. shorn. The fourteen ewes yielded 21 G 
lbs. unwashed, which would te equivalent to 75 lbs. 10 
oz. thoroughly .cleansed, or an average of 5 lbs. G oz. per 
head. One-third may be safely added to bring this up to 
clean washed. This would make the average, as wool-growers 
usually dispose of their fleeces, 7 lbs. 3 oz. per head, a 
yield totally unprecedented in this country. 

TIis Progress of the Merino in the United States. 

Though reaching back but half a century, the Menno flocks 
of this country have been very fluctuating as to their value, 
increase, and improvement. When first introduced, they 
were viewed with distrust by the majority of our farmers ; 
and it was not till after several years' experience of their para- 
mount merits, that they were generally disseminated. But 
the confidence of t,«r flock-masters having once been se- 
cured, it has never been withdrawn, and they have ever since 
been cherished favorites. The prices for choice Merinoes 
rapidly increased after their character was fully established, 
and Livingston states the average price for rams, in 1811, at 
$1,000, and some were sold at a much higher rate. 

This was the period of the embargo, when our infant 
manufactures were just starting into life ; and being follow- 
ed by war with the greatest commercial nation of the world, 
we were thrown entirely on our own resources for the sup- 
ply of our woollen and other fabrics, and wool and sheep 
maintained their full value till after the return of peace, in 1816. 
The flooding of our country with foreign goods, under low 
duties, which succeeded this event, either broke down or 
effectually paralyzed our woollen manufactures; and wool, of 
course, felt the full weight of this crushing; influence. The 
' 9* 



102 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

Merino rapidly declined in value, till its price nearly ap- 
proximated to that of the native sheep. Their merits had, 
however, become so conspicuous, that the low prices ^pro- 
duced a more general diffusion, and they and their crosso* 
were thus sown broadcast over the country. 

The introduction of the Saxons, in great numbers, in 1826, 
many of which were excessively diminutive and diseased, and 
their indiscriminate use with our pure-bred Merinoes, was a 
serious interraption to the career of improvement in many of 
our flocks. Their mixture with the best Saxons was no 
further detrimental, than to reduce the quantity of fleece, and, 
to a certain extent, lessen the peculiar hardiness of the 
original Transhumantes, which had been fully preserved by 
their descendants in this country. The use of well-selected 
Saxon rams with Merino flocks, was extensively practised, and 
it is still persisted in by many intelligent flock-masters, after 
twenty years' experience, who are satisfied that they find 
it for their interest to continue this style of breeding. The 
animals being smaller, consume less ; and they probably pro- 
duce a quantity of wool in proportion to their food, which, 
from its improved and uniform quality, commands a higher 
price in the market.' Wherever they are not sufficiently 
hardy, they can be bred back towards the Spanish Merino 
standard, by the use of some of the stouter rams. Their 
natures are intrinsically the same. They are only divergent 
streams from the same original fountain, and when again 
united, they readily coalesce and • flow onwards, without vio- 
lence or disorder. 

The Merino, as might reasonably have been anticipated, 
when properly managed, has improved from a variety of 
.causes. Though kept scrupulously pure in Spain, they were 
seldom bred with that refinement of taste or nice judgment, 
which distinguishes the accomplished modern breeder. Their 
management was too entirely intrusted to ignorant shepherds 
or careless agents, to secure that close attention which is es- 
sential to improvement. The sheep had to perform a journey 
of several hundred miles twice in a year, to and from their 
distant Sierras ; and it was absolutely essential that strong 
animals- should be selected for breeding ; and to secure this 
object, those were frequently used which were deficient in 
the most profitable qualities. They were also closely bred 
in-and-in, seldom or never departing from a particular flock 
to procure a fresh cross. Their wild, nomadic life, approach- 
ing nearly to that of their natural state, and their peculiarly 



PECULIARITIES OF THE MERINO. 103 

healthful pasturage, alone prevented a serious deterioration 
from this cause. 

When brought into the United States, the rlccks were soon 
mingled with each other, and for many years past, probably, 
not an unmixed descendant of any distinct original flock could 
be traced. Abundance of appropriate food has been given 
them, without the labor of long and fatiguing journeys ; and 
lastly, there has been much care used in the selection of the 
most profitable animals for breed. The spirit of improve- 
ment has been recently awakened to this important branch of 
American husbandry, and as we already have all the elements 
within ourselves for its attainment, if not arrested by any un- 
toward national policy, it will soon result in giving us numerors 
flocks of as choice sheep as the world afrords. 

Peculiarities of the Merino. 

The prominent peculiarities of the Merino, are the abum* ince 
and fineness of its fleece ; the tenacity with which it is leld ; 
its crimped or spiral form ; its felting properties ; and t" e ex- 
cessive quantity of yolk, giving to it that softness whi h dis- 
tinguishes it from all others. Their large horns are ( mimon 
to several other va; ieties. Their hoofs are sometimes si gularly 
long, leaching 8 or 10 inches when allowed to grc v\ The 
horns, hoofs, and wool scarcely differ in their cheir .cal con- 
stituents ; and the peculiar development of the two former, is 
justly considered as an additional evidence of their wf ol-bearing 
properties. 

The yolk, in most of the sheep, forms, with the dust which 
adheres to it, a firm crust on the exterior, and t gether with 
the compactness of the fleece, it offers considerable resistance 
to the open hand on being pressed, giving the impression of 
rigidity. This outer covering repels the rain, the snow, and 
the wind like a coat of mail, thus fitting the Merino to endure 
exposure be}-ond any other sheep. On opening the crust, 
the wool is found of a brilliant, golden hue, sparkling with 
yolk, and firmly held together in masses, hardly distinguish- 
able from the cocoon of the silk-worm. Tire wool closely 
covers every part of the body, and frequently the entire legs 
and head, excepting a part of the face. Still another pecu- 
liarity of the Merino is its longevity. They attain a great age 
when properly managed, and, in healthy localities, sometimes 
breed till 20 years of age. 

The Merino may be described, generally, as a small-boned, 



1C4 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

closely made, medium-sized sheep, varying from 80 lbs. of 
live weight, for a small ewe, to 160 lbs. for good-sized wethers 
and rams, in ordinary condition. They are light in the shoulders 
and chest, and altogether are more deficient in form than the 
best mutton sheep. This apparent difference is materially 
lessened when both are denuded of their fleece ; as the longer 
pile of the latter covers defects, which would manifest them- 
selves under the closer covering of the Merino. Yet, with 
this seeming deficiency, Young found, in feeding the Merino 
and Bakewell, that the latter ate the most, and gained the 
least, in the ratio of two to three. We give the statement as 
we find it, though it apparently contravenes a fundamental 
principle, which a knowledge of all the circumstances of the 
trial, the peculiarities of the particular animals, &c, might 
probably explain satisfactorily. 

The mutton is excellent, and it is proba,bly not surpassed by 
that of any other sheep. Lord Somerville claims it as a rule, 
f.hat the quality of the flesh in each class of sheep follows 
that of the wool, and that the flesh of the short and fine- 
st oolled sheep is closer in the grain and more highly flavored 
thin the long- woolled. Sir Joseph Banks says, the London 
bu chers, after having some of the Merinoes, eagerly sought for 
mo; e, from its popularity with their best customers ; and it is 
certain that the flavor of our mountain-fed Merino does not 
sufft r in comparison with the choicest breeds. 

Breeding Merinoes. 

The general principles of breeding cattle and sheep, as laid 
down by the most approved authorities, must be taken with 
some exceptions, when applied to the Merino. Good form 
and feeding qualities aie desirable in this breed, but they are 
not as essential as with the others. Wool is the great object, 
and if this be sufficiently fine, even, and abundant, something- 
may be abated in the perfection of form. Early maturity, so 
much sought after in the mutton sheep, cannot be reconciled 
with the great longevity, and the prolonged productive powers 
of the Marino. We must content ourselves, therefore, with 
slowly engrafting such improvements on the breed, as can be 
effected without prejudice to his other good qualities, and look 
to his crosses with others for such qualities as are irreconcilable 
with his nature. 

It is considered indispensable to the improvement of the 
Merino, that it be not bred too young. A vigorous ewe may 



BREEDING MERINOES. 105 

Dririg her first lamb at two years old, but it is better that it be 
deferred till three. The ram should never be used till his 
second year, and then but sparingly. From 2f to G years 
old is deemed the most vigorous age, though many may be 
safely used till 8 or 10, and occasionally later. Both ewes 
and rams have been known to breed till 20 years old. 

Thfc ram should be large, stout, and well made, carrying 
his weight as compactly as possible. The nose should be 
convex ; the face covered with a soft velvety hair ; the eye 
lively and prominent ; the veins near the lachrymal glands, of a 
clear red ; the horns rough ; short neck ; pendent dewlap not 
objectionable ; full chest ; broad shoulders ; broad, level back ; 
large quarters ; tail large and well set up ; good legs, and 
sound hoofs ; with a firm, easy, regular gait ; the head 
carried high, with a look of boldness and decision, without in 
any degree approaching to wildness or ferocity. 

The ewe should possess these characteristics generally, with 
such modifications as are suited to the sex. Great care should 
be taken to breed from such as are most perfect in all the 
essential points of constitution, form, and size ; and weight, 
uniformity, and fineness of fleece. The closest observation is 
requisite, to select the best in all respects. 

In-and-in breeding should be avoided where practicable, 
which can be done where there is a careful registry of the 
sheep through successive generations. Excessive use cf rams 
can never be permitted without decided injury to them and 
their progeny. In Spain, four rams are supplied to every 
hundred ewes. This limited number is proper enough, where 
they undergo so much fatigue in travelling, and kept too, as 
they are, entirely on grass. But if moderately grained before 
and during their use, and especially if kept up, and allowed to 
serve the ewes once onlyif as they come in heat, this number 
may be largely increased. A vigorous ram will suffice for 35 
to 40 ewes, when running with the flock ; yet his powers would 
not be more taxed by double or even treble this number, if 
admitted to each but once. Bread is a convenient food for 
the ram while running with the sheep. If he is gentle, which 
he should always be, he will come up readily and eat from the 
hand, without exciting the attention of the other sheep, which 
crowd, and not unfrequently injure each other when grain is 
placed before him ; or he may be stabled at night and fed 
with grain. 

If young ewes have stolen lambs, they should be taken 
away immediately after yeaning., and the nourishment supplied 



106 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

to the lamb from the milk of a cow. The tax of nursing is 
nearly equal to that of gestation, and farther injury to the dam 
may be avoided by this practice. Merino ewes have had the 
reputation of being indifferent nurses in Spain. This is owing 
to their fatigue in travelling, and scanty pasturage, rather than 
to any constitutional deficiency. It is a frequent practice 
there, to kill a part of the lambs, and put one on to two'ewes. 
This has ne v er been found necessary m the countries where 
they have been transplanted, as generous feed for the dams 
has invariably been found entirely adequate to their support 
of the young. 

The localities in which Merino Sheep can be profitably kept in 
the United States, 

Are wherever the pastures are sweet and dry ; the climate 
not excessively hot ; and the land not too valuable for other 
purposes. Wool is generally the great object in the sheep 
husbandry of this country, and when sheep farms are remote 
from the large markets, the Merino will make much the most 
profitable returns. In the neighborhood of cities, where large 
and fat sheep and early lambs bear a high price, the mutton 
sheep may be substituted. 

The South Down. 

This valuable sheep has been known and bred for a long 
time on the chalky downs of England, where it has always 
maintained the character of a hardy animal, yielding a medium 
quality of wool, and furnishing mutton of a superior flavor. 
It was not, however, till within the last 10 years, that any 
considerable attention was devoted to its improvement. Since 
that period, its fine points have been remarkably developed, 
which is shewn in its improved iize and form, and its early 
maturity and productiveness. The late Mr. John Ellman, of 
England, was the first who took them thoroughly in hand ; and 
so eminent was his success, that he founded a flock which has 
been the source whence all the best blood has been since 
derived. 

The form and characteristics of the South Downs. 

His criteria of a good South Down, are as follows : — " The 
head small and hornless ; the face speckled or gray, and nei- 
ther too long nor too short. The lips thin, and the space 



CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOUTH DOWNS. 



10? 



between the nose and the eyes narrow. The under jaw, or 
chap, fine and thin; the ears tolerably wide, and well covered 
with wool, and the forehead also, and the whole space between 
the ears well protected by it, as a defence against the fly. 
The eye full and bright, but not prominent. The orbits of the 



Fie. 23. 







-nSSmt 







m 



i ^ *^v^ ' ^f ■■»■ 
Soatli Down Buck. 




-*.:i,;"..L^.r;U 



»eye — the eye-cap, or bone, — not too projecting, that it may 
not form a fatal obstacle in lambing. The neck of a medium 
length, thin towards the head, but enlarging towards the 
shoulders, where it should be; broad and high, and straight in 
its whole course above and below. The breast should be wide, 
deep, and projecting forwards between the fore-legs, indicating 
a good constitution, and a disposition to thrive. Correspond- 
ing with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the back, 
and not too wide above ; they should bow outward f om the 
top to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and 
leaving room for it. The ribs coming out horizontally from 
the spine, and extending far backward, and the last rib pro- 



108 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



jecting more than the others ; the back flat from the shoulders 
to the setting on of the tail ; the loin broad and flat ; the mmp 

Fig. 24. 



JlplSSIiiN 




^■'A ii-^- v '— ^\ v v - -J'vXdiM 



wx 



m 




Via 




South Down Ewe. 

long and broad, and the tail set on high and nearly on a level 
with the spine. The hips wide ; the space between them and 
the last rib on either side as narrow as possible, and the ribs, 
generally, presenting a circular form like a barrel. The belly 
as straight as the back. The legs neither too long nor too 
short. The fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot ; not 
bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart both before 
and behind ; the hocks having a direction rather outward, and 
the twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being particu- 
larly full ; the bones fine, yet having no appearance of weak- 



THE CHEVIOT. 1 OU 

ness, and of a speckled or dark color. The belly well defended 
with wool, and the wool coming down before and behind to 
the knee, and to the hock ; the wool short, close, curled, and 
fine, and free from spiry projecting fibres." 

Other breeders have commenced wmere Ellman left off, and 
have apparently pushed their improvement to its utmost capa- 
city ; and especially has this been done by Messrs. Grantham 
and Webb, the latter of whom, while preserving all the es- 
sential merits of the sheep, has carried- the live weight of 
breeding rams to 250 lbs., and well-fattened wethers to. 200 
lbs. dressed weight. Many of the choicest animals have been 
imported into this country, and they are now to be found, in 
limited numbers, in almost every state of the Union. 

The wool was formerly short, and used only for cloths, flan- 
nels, &c. It has been considerably lengthened in many of the 
late flocks, and with the improvements in the combing ma- 
chinery, is now much used in England as a combing wool. 
The quantity produced is nearly equal to that of the Merino 
flocks when well kept, varying, according to the size and style 
of breeding, from 3 to 4 lbs. of clean washed wool, which in 
quality does not differ materially from half-blood Merino, and 
sometimes rather exceeds it. The larger animals, of course, 
produce fleeces of much greater weight, sometimes reaching* 
to 8 or 9 lbs. The South Down will subsist on short pasture, 
but well repays full feeding. It attains early maturity, is hardy 
and prolific, frequently producing two at a birth. Like all 
highly-improved English breeds, it is not a long-lived sheep. 
It may be considered in its prime at three. The wethers may 
be fattened at 18 to 30 months, and the ewes at 3 to 5 years, 
when first required as breeders. The last are sometimes al- 
lowed to come in with a lamb at a year, but they cannot be 
sustained in vigor if put to breeding before two. 

Tlie Cheviot 

Is thus described by Blacklock : " They have a bare head, 
with a long jaw and white face, but no horns. Sometimes 
they have a shade of gray upon the nose, approaching to dark 
at the tip ; at others, a tinge of lemon color on the face, but 
these markings scarcely affect their value. The legs are clean, 
long, and small-boned, and covered with wool to the hough ", 
but there is a sad want of depth at the breast, and of breadth 
both there and on the chine. A fat carcass weighs from 12 
lbs. to 18 lbs. per quarter, and a medium fleece about 3 lbs 

10 



110 DOMESTCC ANIMALS. 

The purest specimens of this breed are to be found on the 
Scotch side of the Cheviot hills, and on the high and stony 
mountain farms which lie between that range and the sources 
of the Teviot. These sheep are a capital mountain stock, pro- 
vided the pasture resembles the Cheviot hills, in containing a 
good proportion of rich herbage." 

They are eminently adapted to high lands and a severe cli- 
mate, though less so than the Black-faced or Heath sheep of 
Scotland. They have become an American sheep, by their 
repeated introduction into this country. A late importation 
of several choice sheep was made by Mr. Carmichael of New 
York. The wool on these is from 5 to 7 inches long, coarse, 
but well suited to combing. Like the Downs, it has heretofore 
been classed among the middle-wools, but these specimens 
would seem to indicate that they are verging towards the long- 
wools. 

The Bakewell or Leicester, the Cotswold and Lincolnshire, 

Possess several qualities in common, and it is only a prac- 
ticed eye that can readily detect the difference. This resem- 
blance arises from a recent, common origin. They are all 
large and hornless ; of a pure white ; with long, coarse, and 
heavy fleeces ; excellent mutton sheep ; coming early to ma- 
turity, and capable of carrying enormous quantities of fat. 
There have been from time immemorial numerous flocks of 
these large, coarse-woolled sheep, existing in certain parts of 
England, under a variety of names, and partaking of some 
slight peculiarity of features, according to the district in which 
they are bred. Thus, besides those above-mentioned, there 
were the Teeswater, the Romney-Marsh, the Kentish, the 
Bampton, the Exmoor, &c, all of which were deficient in form, 
slow-feeders, and late in coming to maturity. 

Improvement of the Long- Wools. 

The late Robert Bakewell first commenced a decided im- 
provement with the Leicesters, nearly a century since. He 
began by selecting the choicest sheep in England, which pos- 
sessed- the essential qualities ; and by judicious feeding and 
management throughout, he soon brought them up to a char- 
acter widely differing from the original with which he started. 
So eminent was his success, that in 1787 he let three rams, 
for a single season, for 1250 pounds, (about $6,200,) and was 
offered 1050 pounds (about $5,200) for 20 ewes. Soon after 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE LOXG-WOOLS. Ill 

this, he received the enormous price of 800 guineas, or $4,000, 
for the use of two-thirds of a ram for one season, reserving the 
other third for himself. 

Fig. 25. 







Long-wool Buck. 

He reduced the bone and offal or worthless parts of the car- 
ass, and increased the weight of the valuable p-uts, and es- 



112 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

pecially their tendency to fatten and early maturity. Thi 
was effected mainly by a nice discrimination, which has prob 
ably never been surpassed, if it has ever been equalled. He 
selected medium sizes for the breed, with as much evenness 
and perfection of form as possible, for he found that excellence 
and profitable feeding qualities were seldom connected with 
extra size, large bones, or imperfect form. He also observed 
the disposition to fatten in individuals, and used only such as 
were conspicuous in this respect. He relied more than all 
upon their quality of handling well, depending even more upon 
the -elastic, mellow touch, than upon the most symmetrical 
figure. He used only the choicest rams, a- little under size, 
while the ewes were of full medium weight. ' The progeny 
were pushed with a full supply of nutritious food, and system- 
atically brought to early maturity. 

Connected with this, was his practice of in-and-in breeding, 
or breeding the parent upon the progeny, for several succes- 
sive generations, which had the tendency still further to refine 
the bone and offal, and impress most effectually the desirable 
characteristics of the race. It is even credibly asserted, that 
he produced rot in such of his fattening sheep as he wished 
to mature early for the shambles, as in the first stages of that 
loathsome disease the fat-secreting organs accomplish their 
office more rapidly than in a state of perfect health ; and it at 
least secured them against breeding when they left his own 
hands. It is certain, that Bakewell carried his refining sys- 
tem to such an extent, as partially to destroy the procreative 
powers ; and he was subsequently obliged to introduce new 
animals, to reinvigorate and continue his flock. 

The general system of Bakewell, however, was attended 
with complete success. He produced a race of animals, not 
only far beyond what England had ever before seen, but 
which, in all the qualities he endeavored to establish, have not 
been since exceeded ; and his improved Leicesters have come 
down to the present day as perfect as he left them, showing 
conclusively, that he not only formed, but stamped the pe- 
culiarities of the breed, with a permanence which yet bears 
witness to his genius. One of these attained the enormous 
live weight of 368 lbs., and dressed 248 lbs. 

The Cotswold and Lincolnshire. 

Other breeders were not slow in following in Bakewell s 
footsteps with different breeds, and the Cotswold and Lincoln- 



BREEDING OF LONG-WOOLS. 113 

shire especially, have become the subjects of an equally decided 
improvement, while the errors of Bakewell were entirely 
avoided. They possess a rather more desirable robustness, 
approaching, in some few specimens, almost to coarseness, as 
compared with the finest Leicesters ; but they are more hardy 
and less liable to disease. They attain as large a size, and 
yield as great an amount of wool, of about the same value. 
These breeds scarcely differ more fiom each other, than do 
flocks of a similar variety, which have been separately bred 
for several generations. They are prolific, and when well fed, 
the ewes will frequently produce two lambs at a birth, for 
which they provide liberally from their udder till the time for 
weaning. The weight of the fleece vaiies from 4 to 8 lbs. per 
head. 

Peculiarity of long Wool and its Uses, 

The striking peculiarity of the long-wools, is in the produc- 
tion of a fleece, which is perfectly adapted, by its length and 
the absence of the felling property, to the manufacture of 
worsted stuffs, bombazines, mousseline de laines, &c. This is 
a branch of manufactures, for which we had little material 
that was suitable, till the introduction of the long- wools ; and 
its rapid extension in the United States, within the past few 
years, clearly shows that a large and increasing demand for 
this kind of wool will continue at remunerating prices. Be- 
sides its uses for combing, it is extensively manufactured into 
blankets, carpeting, and many other fabrics. 

Importation of Long-Wools. 

Several of the Bakewells were imported during the last cen- 
tury ; and many flocks, containing some of the best specimens, 
have been introduced and scattered over every section of the 
country. The largest of any single importation of the long- 
wools, was made by Messrs. Corning & Sotham, in 1842, and 
immediately preceding, and consisted of TO or 80 choice Cots- 
wolds. 

Breeding the Long-Wools. 

Some information on this subject will be found under the 
head of breeding Merinoes, and improvement of the Long- Wools. 
The ram and ewe should be selected from the best specimens 
of the breed which is to be perpetuated. There are peculiar- 
ities of form or appearance in each, which should be carefully 

10* 



114 DOMES I .'«? ANIMALS. 

observed. A violent cross should never be permitted for the 
purpose of perpetuation, as suggested under the head of prin- 
ciples of breeding, in a previous chapter ; such as between those 
possessing totally opposite properties, as the Merino and long- 
wools ; and there is no conceivable advantage in mixing the 
middle-wools, South Downs, &c, with either. 

Lord Western has long experimented on the blending of 
the Merino and long-wools, through several generations, with- 
out any well-defined results, nor is it believed to be attainable. 
There is no evenness or integrity of character, either in the 
animal or fleece, from such mixtures ; nor is it possible to 
forelel the character of progeny fiom these bastard crosses. 
The general rule, that like begets like, will not hold true here, 
for the animal comes large or small, with a long or short 
fleece, fine or coarse, or intermixed ; and this, too. is repeated 
through numerous generations, when the immediate parents 
exhibit properties altogether unlike the offspring, and which 
they derive from some remote ancestry. This practice will do 
to produce lambs for the butcher, as the consequence of a 
fresh cross is greater stamina and thrift; and it is found that 
lambs thus bred attain an earty and ftdl development. Thou- 
sands of such are annually bred on the banks of the Hudson, 
Long Island, and around our large cities, and in the worst 
possible way, as the large, coarse ram is used on the delicate 
Saxon ewe ; } T et the lambs thrive and command a good pnce 
in the market, and the owner is satisfied to pocket the result. 
But nothing could be more absurd than to propagate from 
such progeny for any other purpose than to make early and 
profitable mutton. 

The mixture of breeds of similar character, is attended with 
the best consequences. Such was the intermingling of the 
improved Leicesters with the Cotswold and Lincolnshire, by 
which their former coarseness was removed ; and such was the 
use of the latter with the Leicesters, when they became impo- 
tent and almost worthless, from over-refinement in breeding. 
Good results have followed the mixture of the South and 
Hampshire Downs. A marked improvement in the Merino in 
this country, has been claimed by Mr. Jarvis and several 
others, from the mixture of the various flocks, which for ages 
had been kept distinct in Spain ; and the same result is known 
to have followed a similar course with the Rambouillet and 
Saxon flocks. 



BREEDING SHEEP. 115 

The ewe goes with young 

About five months, varying from 145 to 162 days. Each 
fiock-master will of course determine what is the proper lamb- 
ing time. For early market, or when there are few sheep, 
and those well looked after, the lambs may come while the 
ewes are in the yards, and provision can be made for them, 
by placing such as are heavy in warm stalls. Both the dam 
and young thus receive a closer attention than they would in 
the field ; and after a week's housing, in severe weather, the 
lamb may be turned out into the dry yard, where he will 
suffer no more, apparently, than the full-grown sheep. 

But with large flocks, early lambing is attended with much 
trouble, and it is generally avoided, by deferring it till the 
weather has become more settled, and a full bite of grass will 
afford the dam a plentiful supply of milk. Yet in this case, 
the young sheep must daily be under the eye of the shepherd, 
who should see that they are well supplied with food, and es- 
pecially that they are brought under cover, in severe or stormy 
weather. 

A ram will serve from 20 to 100 ewes in a season, according 
to his age, health, feed, and management. A South Down or 
long-woolled lamb, of V or 8 months, is sometimes used ; and 
when this is done, he should be well fed, and allowed to run 
only with a very few ewes. If full-grown rams are turned 
into a lean pasture to remain with the ewes, not less than four 
should be put in for every hundred. But if a well-fed ram, 
in full health and vigor, is kept up, and led out to the ewe as 
she comes into heat, and allowed to serve her once only, he 
will suffice for one hundred, without injury to himself or pro- 
geny. For this purpose, the ram should be prepared, not by 
being fat, for this, neither he nor the ewe should ever be ; but 
by being fed with grain for a short time before, and during 
the continuance of the season. The ewes are more likely to 
come quickly into heat, and prove prolific, if lightly fed with 
stimulating food at the time. 

It is reasonably enough conjectured, that if procreation, and 
the first period of gestation, takes place in cold weather, the 
foetus will subsequently be fitted for the climate, which rules 
during the early stages of its existence. If this be so, and it 
is certainly in accordance with the laws of nature, fine-woolled 
sheep are most likely to maintain their excellence, by deferring 
the connection of the male till the commencement of cold 
weather ; and in the Northern states, this is done about the 



(16 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

first of December, which brings the yeaning time in the !»-*.(. 
of April or first of May, when the early grass will afford a 
large supply and good quality of feed. 

Winter Management and Food, 

Sheep should be brought into winter-quarters soon after the 
severe frosts occur, as these diminish the feed, and materially 
impair its nutritious qualities. They ought also to be removed 
from the grass-lands, before they become permanently soften- 
ed by the rains, as they will injuriously affect their comfort 
and health ; and allowing them to remain is equally objection- 
able, from their poaching the sod. If the number be large 
when brought to the yards, they must be divided into flocks 
of 50 to 100, according to the size of the yards and sheds. 
The young and feeble ought to be separated from the others, 
and the ailing ones placed by themselves ; and that no one 
may suffer from the others, all should be classed as uniformly 
as possible as to strength. The yards must be dry, well sup- 
plied with a trough of fresh water, and with comfortable 
sheds, to which they can retire when they choose. 

Shelters. 

These, in northern climates, are indispensable to profitable 
sheep-raising, and in every latitude north of the Gulf of 
Mexico they would be advantageous. There is policy as 
well as humanity in the practice. An animal eats much less 
when thus protected ; he is more thrifty, less liable to disease, 
and his manure is richer and more abundant. The feeding 
may be done in the open yard in clear weather, and under 
cover in severe storms. The shelters for sheep are variously 
constructed, to suit the taste or circumstances of the flock- 
master. A sheep-barn, built upon a side hill, will afford two 
floors ; one underneath, surrounded by three sides of wall, 
should open to the south, with sliding or swinging doors to 
guard against storms ; and another may be provided above, 
if the floors are perfectly tight, with proper gutters to carry 
off the mine; and sufficient storage for the fodder can be 
furnished by scaffolds overhead. Or they may be constructed 
with twelve or fifteen feet posts on level ground, allowing 
the sheep to occupy the lower part, with the fodder stored 
above. 

In all cases, however, thorough ventilation should be pro 
vided, for of the two evils of exposure to ?old or too great 



RACKS Oil MANGERS, AND TROUGHS. _17 

privation of air, the former is to be preferred. Slieep cannot 
long endure close confinement without injury. In all ordinary 
weather, a shed closely boarded on three sides, with a tight 
roof, is sufficient protection ; especially, if the open side is 
shielded from bleak winds, or leads into a well-enclosed yard. 
If the floors above are used for storage, they should be made 
tight, that no hay, chaff, or dust can fall upon the fleece. 

Racks or Mangers. 

These are indispensable to economical feeding. If the hay 
is fed on the ground, the leaves and seeds, the most valuable 
part of the f ,> Jder, are almost wholly lost ; and when wet, the 
sheep, in their restlessness while feeding, will tread much of 
it into the mud. To make an economical box or rack, take 
six light pieces of scantling, say three inches square, one for 
each corner, and one for the centre of each side. Boards of 
pine or hemlock, 12 or 15 feet long and 12 or 14 inches 
wide, may then be nailed on to the bottom of the -posts for 
the sides, which are separated by similar boards at the ends, 
2-J feet long. Boards 12 inches wide, raised above the lower 
ones by a space of 9 to 12 inches, are nailed on the sides 
and ends, which completes the rack. The edges of the 
opening should be made perfectly smooth, to prevent chafing 
or tearing out the wool. The largest dimensions above given, 
are suitable for the large breeds, and the smallest for the 
Saxon, and still smaller are proper for their lambs. These 
should be set on dry ground, or under the sheds, and they 
can easily be removed wherever necessary. 

Some prefer the racks made with slats, or smooth, upright 
sticks, in the form of the usual horse-rack. There is no ob- 
jection to this, but it should always be accompanied by a 
board trough affixed to the bottom, to catch the fine hay 
which falls in feeding. These may be attached to the side of 
a building, or used double. A small lamb requires fifteen 
inches of space, and a large sheep two feet, for quiet, com- 
fortable feeding ; and at least this amount of room should be 
provided around the racks for every sheep. 

Troughs. „ 

They may be variously constructed. The most economica. 
are made with two boards of any convenient length, ten to 
twelve inches wide. Nail the lower side of one upon the 
edge of the other, fastening both into a two or three inch 



118 DOMESTIC ANIMVLb*. 

plank, fifteen inches long and a foot wide, notched in ts upper 
edge in the form required. 

Food, 

There is no better food for sheep, than well-ripened, sound, 
timothy hay : though the clovers, and nearly all the cultivated 
grasses, may be advantageously fed. Bean and pea straw 
are valuable, and especially the former, which, if properly 
cured, they prefer to the best hay ; and it is well adapted to 
the production of wool. All the other straws furnish a good 
food, and sheep will thrive on them without hay, when fed 
with roots or grain. 

Roots ought to be given them occasionally for a change, 
and especially to the ewes after lambing, if this occurs before 
putting them on to fresh pasture. They keep the stomach 
properly distended, the appetite and general health good ; and 
they render their winter forage nearly equal to their summer 
feed. 

Much grain is not suited to store-sheep. It is too rich, and 
should be given sparingly except to the lambs, the old ewes, or 
feeble sheep, or to restore the rams after hard service. For the 
above purposes, oats are the best ; and if any other grain, 
beans or peas are given, it should be in small quantities. 
When there is a deficiency of hay and roots, grain may be 
used with straw. 

The flock ought to be so fed as to receive the same amount 
of nourishment throughout every p-art of the year. The even- 
ness and value of the fleece depends much upon this. * When 
the amount of nutrition is great, the wool-secreting organs are 
distended, and the fibre becomes enlarged ; when limited, they 
necessarily contract, and the fibre is. small. This produces a 
want of trueness, which the experienced stapler readily detects, 
and which he does not fail to estimate against the value of the 
fleece. 

Sheep ought to have a full supply of salt, and if accessible, 
sulphur, ashes, tar, and clay would frequently be nibbled by 
them when their stomach required either. Pine or hemlock 
boughs are a good substitute for tar, and afford a most health- 
ful change in the winter-food of sheep. Entire cleanliness 
and dryness are also essential to the health of the flock. The 
smaller sizes of the Saxon may be well sustained on two 
pounds of hay, but larger sheep will consume from three and 
a half to four, or even five pounds per day. . Sheep, like all 



MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS. 119 

uther animals when exposed to cold, will consume much more 
than if well protected, or than during a warmer season. 

The Care of the Ewes with Young 

Is an important consideration, as the lamb is sometimes the 
only profit yielded by the flock ; for when fodder is high, or 
wool low, the fleece will barely pay for the food and attention. 
Pregnant ewes require the same food as at all other times ; 
but caution is necessary to prevent injury or abortion, which is 
often the result of excessive fat, feebleness, or disease. The 
first may be remedied by blood-letting and spare diet ; and 
both the last by restored health and generous food. Sudden 
fright, as from dogs or strange objects ; long or severe journeys ; 
great exertions ; unwholesome food ; blows in the region of the 
fcatus, and some other causes, produce abortion. 

Yeaning. 

Most flocks are turned into the pasture before yeaning time, 
and the ewe is then left to nature, which is a good practice, if 
she is healthy and the weather good. But a larger number of 
lambs will be reared by a careful oversight of the ewes, and 
the use of proper precautions. As their time approaches, 
which may be known by the springing of the udder and the 
enlargement of the natural parts, they should be put by them- 
selves at night, in a warm stable or with others in the same 
condition, and well looked after, late and early in the day. 

They seldom need any assistance, nor should any be render- 
ed, except in case of wrong presentation, or feebleness in ex- 
pelling the foetus. In the former case, the shepherd may 
apply his thumb and linger, after oiling, to push back the 
young, and assist in gently turning it till the nose and fore-feet 
appear ; and for the latter, only the slightest aid should be 
rendered, and that to help the throes of the dam. 

Management of Lambs. 

When lambing in the field, only a few should be together, 
as the young sometimes get changed, and the dams refuse to 
own them. This difficulty is generally obviated, by holding 
the ewe till the lamb has sucked two or three times ; or they 
may be shut up together, and the lamb rubbed with a little 
fine salt. The lamb does not require nourishment for some hours 



IXJO DOMESTIC ANIMALS, 

after its birth ; but if the dam refuse to lick it as soon as it 
appears, it must be carefully wiped dry. If the weather be 
cold and the lamb is dropped in the field, the shepherd should 
be furnished with large pockets or a well-lined oasket, in 
which it must be placed till the ewe is brought to the shed. 

After the first day or two, the udders ought to be com- 
pletely drained of their milk by the hand, so as to prevent, 
swollen or caked bag. In case of deficienc}?- of milk, the lamb 
may be supplied from a new milch cow, by means of a suck- 
ing-bottle with an air vent, or it may draw a part of its nourish- 
ment from another ewe, which can be held while the lamb is 
sucking. 

It is sometimes necessaiy to substitute a foster-mother, in 
which case, the ewe nnvy be made to own the lamb, by milk- 
ing from her udder over the lamb and under his tail, rubbing 
it on well ; or rub the adopted lamb with the entrails and con- 
tents of the stomach of the dead lamb, or cover it with the 
skin. If the ewe proves a bad nurse, or it is desirable to 
bring the lambs forward rapidly, they may be early taught to 
eat boiled oats or other grain, cabbage, roots, and tender 
hay. Lambs should be well fed, as this is important to produce 
size, constitution, and perfection of form. 

The ewes and their young ought to be divided into small 
flocks, and have a frequent change of pasture. Some careful 
shepherds adopt the plan of confining their lambs, and allow 
fchem to suck two or three times a day ; by which they suffer 
so fatigue, and thrive much faster. But this is troublesome 
ind injurious, as the exercise is essentia! to the health and 
-constitution of the lamb intended for rearing. It is admissible 
mly when they are wanted for an early market, and by those 
vho rear them for this purpose, it is a common practice. 

Castrating and Docking Lambs. 

After selecting enough of the choicest rams for stock-get- 
ers, the castrating may be performed at any time between 
•wo and six weeks old, when the lamb is in good health. A 
X)ol day should be chosen ; or if warm, it must be done early 
u the morning. The best method is for one person to hold 
%ie lamb firmly between his legs, on an inclined plank upon 
which he rests, while another with a sharp knife cute off about 
two-thirds of the lower part of the scrotum. The testicles are 
then drawn out till the spermatic cord is reached, which is 
divided by the thumb nail ; or it is pulled out and. cut with a 



HUMMER MANAGEMENT 121 

sharp knife. It is sometimes done by simply opening the scro- 
tum, when the testicles and spermatic cold are jerked out. 
The wound should then be rinsed with cold water, after which 
apply lard. • 

The operation of docking is by many deferred till a late pe- 
riod, from apprehension of too much loss of blood ; but if the 
weather be favorable, and the lamb in good condition, it may 
be performed at this time with the least trouble and without 
injury. The tail should be laid upon the plank, the person 
holding him in the same position as before. With one hand 
he draws the skin towards the body, while the other person, 
with a two-inch chisel and mallet, strikes it off at a blow, be- 
tween the bone joints, leaving it one and a half to two inches 
long. The skin immediately slips back over the wound and is 
soon healed. Ewe lambs should be docked closer than the 
rams. To prevent flies and maggots, and assist in healing, it 
is well to apply an ointment composed of lard and tar, in the 
proportions of four pounds of the former to one quart of the 
latter. This is also a good application for the scrotum. The 
lambs should be carefully protected from cold and wet till they 
are perfectly well. 

Tagging, or Clatting, 

Is the removal of such wool as is liable to get fouled, when 
the sheep are turned on to the fresh pastures, and of course 
it should be done just before leaving their winter quarters. It 
is most easily accomplished by placing the animal on a low 
table, and then holding it as in shearing, till the operation is 
performed. All the wool near the extremity of the sheath, 
and the scrotum of the males ; from the udder of the ewes ; 
and from below the dock, the inside of the thighs, and the legs 
of the sheep, should be removed. 

Summer Management. 

As soon as the warm weather approaches, and the grass 
appears, sheep become lestive and impatient for the pasture. 
This instinct should be repressed till the ground has become 
thoroughly dry, and the grass has acquired substance. They 
ought, moreover, to be provided for the change of food, by 
the daily use of roots for a few days before turning out. It 
would also check the tendency to excessive purging, which is 
induced by the first spring feed, if they were housed at night, 
and fed for the first few days with a little sound, sweet hay. 

]] 



122 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

They must be provided with pure water, salt, &c, as in win- 
ter, for though they may sometimes do tolerably well without 
either, yet thrift and freedom from disease are cheaply secured 
by this slight attention. 

Dry, sweet pastures, and such as abound in aromatic and 
bitter plants, are best suited for sheep-walks. No animal, 
with the exception of the goat, crops so great a variety of 
plants. They eat many which are rejected by the horse and 
the ox, and which are even essential to their own wants. In 
this respect, they are valuable assistants to the husbandman, 
as they feed greedily on wild mustard, burdocks, thistles, 
marsh-mallows, milkweed, and various other offending plants ; 
and the Merino exceeds the more recent breeds in the variety 
of his selections. 

Many prepare artificial pastures for their flocks. This may 
be' done with a number of plants. Winter rye, or wheat sown 
early in the season, may be fed off in the fall, without injury 
to the crop ; and in the following spring, the rye may be pas- 
tured till the stalks shoot up and begin to form a head. This 
affords an early and nutritious food. Corn may be sown 
broadcast, or thickly in drills, and either fed off in the fields, 
or cut and carried to the sheep in their folds. White mustard 
is a valuable crop for this purpose. 

To give sheep sufficient variety, it would be better to divide 
their range into smaller ones, and change them as often at 
least as once a week. They seek a favorite resting-place, on a 
dry, elevated part of the field, which soon becomes soiled. By 
removing them from this for a few days, rains will cleanse, 
or the sun dry it, so as again to make it suitable for them. 
More sheep may be kept, and in better condition, where this, 
practice is adopted, than where they are confined to the same 
pasture. 

Washing Sheep. 

In most of that portion of the Union north of 40°, the 
washing is performed from the middle of May till the first of 
June, according to the season and climate. When the streams 
are hard, which is frequently the case in limestone regions, it 
is better to do this immediately after an abundant rain, by 
which the lime derived from the springs is proportionally 
lessened. The practice of a large majority of our farmers, is 
to drive their sheep to the washing-ground early in the morn- 
ing on a warm day, leaving ti.e lambs behind. The sheep are 
confined on the bank of the stream by a temporary enclosure ; 



WASHING SHEEP. 123 

from whijh they are taken, and if not too heavy, are cairied 
into water sufficiently deep to prevent their touching bottom. 
They are then washed, by gently squeezing the fleece with the 
hands, after which they are led ashore, and as much of the 
water pressed out as possible before letting them go, as the 
great weight retained in the wool frequently staggers and 
throws them down. 

A good practice is to lead the sheep into the water and sat- 
urate the fleece, after which they are taken ashore. When 
they commence steaming, they are again led into the water, 
and washed clean. This insures thorough cleansing, where 
the water is pure. Others make use of a boat,, one end of 
which rests on a bold shore, and ;he other is in deep water. 
The operator stands in the boat and plunges the animal over 
the side, when the washing is performed. It is sometimes 
done by sinking a tight hogshead or large box in the water, 
with heavy weights, in which a man stands, and the sheep are 
brought or led to him by another person, who walks on a plat- 
form reaching from the bank to the hogshead. Either of the 
last methods obviates the necessity of standing for a long 
time in water,, by which colds, rheumatism, &c. are frequently 
contracted. In parts of Germany, and sometimes in this 
country, sheep are forced to swim across a narrow stream 
several times, by which the fleece is tolerably cleaned, if all 
the water be pressed out when they get to the land. The yolk 
being a saponaceous compound, and not an oily matter as is 
generally supposed, it readily combines with the water and 
passes out of the wool. 

An excellent practice, when streams are not convenient, is 
to lead a small ripple of soft water into a tub. To this, a little 
soap is added, after which the sheep are immersed and thor- 
oughly cleansed. Perfect whiteness and purity of the fleece 
is readily secured afterwards, by throwing over the sheep a 
jet of water. This practice has a good effect, in preventing 
or removing cutaneous disorders, and destroying ticks or other 
vermin. 

Many judicious farmers object to washing sheep, from its 
tendency to produce colds and catarrhal affections, to which 
sheep are particularly subject ; but it cannot well be dispensed 
with, as the wool is always more saleable, and if carefully 
done, need not be attended Avith injury. Warm settled weath- 
er, however, is indispensable to washing with safety to tha 
general health of the sheep. 



124 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



Fig. 26 shows \ ewe, with lines indicating the usual method 
of sorting wool ; number 1 indicating the retina or picklock ; 
2 and 3, the second and third qualities. 

Fig. 26. 




Wool Sorting 



Shearing, 

The manner of shearing varies w T ith almost every district ; 
but as this is an art to be acquired under a skilful master, we 
shall omit particular details on the subject. First clip all the 
tags and filth, if any remains or has been accumulated after 
the tagging in the spring ; then take off the fleece and spread 
it with the outside uppermost on a smooth bench or table, and 
push the wool carefully together, to render it more compact ; 
double the sides over to the centre ; throw the clean loose 
locks into the middle, and roll together from each end. This 
makes a smooth, dense package, which is secured by passing 
a stout twine one or more times around the sides and ends. 
All the wool from the extremities, should be closely sheared 



SMEARING OB SALVING SHEEP. 125 

and saved by itself, before dismissing the sheep, but not put 
up with choice fleeces. 

If ivounds are made, which is sometimes the case with un- 
skilful operators, a mixture of tar and grease ought to be ap- 
plied. After shearing, such horns and hoofs as are likely to 
be troublesome, should be sawed and pared. 

The branding, or marking, is essential to distinguish them 
from other flocks, and this is done on the shoulder, side, or 
buttock. A brush or marking-iron is used for this purpose, 
with paint made of lampblack, to which a little spirits of 
turpentine is first added, and then diluted with linseed or 
lard oil. 

If the weather be cool, and especially, if severe storms oc- 
cur after washing or shearing, the flock should be housed. If 
sultry, they should have a cool, shady retreat, where they will 
be shielded from the flies and the heat. Blisters and perma- 
nent injury to the skin and fleece, are frequently the result of 
such exposure. Shade trees in their pastures, contribute much 
to the comfort of sheep, when exposed to a blazing sun. A 
close examination of the skin should be made at shearing, for 
the detection of disease or vermin. 

For remedies, see article diseases. 

Smearing or Salving Sheep 

Is a custom little practised in this countiy. For cold, ele- 
vated, and bleak exposures, it may be necessary, and it is, there- 
fore, generally adopted in Scotland. The object is, to prevent 
cutaneous diseases and vermin, and furnish additional warmth 
and protection to the fleeces of such breeds as are deficient in 
yolk. It is usually performed in the latter part of October, 
but is sometimes done immediately after shearing. 

The mixture or salve consists of tar and butter or grease, in 
different proportions ; 1 gallon of the former to 12, or some- 
times 20 lbs. of the latter ; the greater proportion of tar being 
required for the younger sheep, or for more exposed situations. 
The grease is melted over the fire, and the tar stirred in, and 
when sufficiently cool, it is applied to the whole body of the 
sheep, by carefully parting the wool and rubbing it on the 
skin with the fingers. The above quantity is sufficient for 30 
or 50 sheep, according to their size and the character of the 
wool. 

This application is not required for fine-woolled sheep, 
whose fleeces are more appropriatelv protected bj a natural 

11* 



126 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

secretion of yolk ; and it is better to omit it in all cases, where 
the health and comfort of the animal do not render it abso- 
lutely essential. Mr. Stewart, an experienced Scotch shepherd, 
uses only tallow and train oil, mixed in equal proportions. He 
asserts, that the improvement in the growth and quality of the 
wool is at least one-third, and it materially benefits the con- 
dition of the sheep. 

Weaning. 

The lambs may be weaned from 3| to 4 months old. They 
should be put upon rich, sweet feed, but not too luxuriant ; 
while the dams are turned upon the poorest, and so remote 
from their young, as to be out of sight and hearing. The 
ewes ought to be carefully examined after a day or two, and 
if necessary, the milk removed with the hand. If it continues 
to accumulate, the ewe may be fed on hay for a few days. 

When thoroughly dried oft", they should have the best fare, 
to enable them to recover condition for subsequent breeding 
and wintering. The fall is a critical period to lose flesh, either 
for sheep or lambs ; and if any are found deficient, they should 
be at once provided with extra feed and attention. If cold 
weather overtakes them poor or in ill-health, they will scarcely 
outlive it ; or if by chance they survive, their emaciated car- 
cass, impaired constitution, and scant fleece, will ill repay the 
food and attention they will have cost. 

The time for taking Sheep from the Pastures. 

This must depend on the state of the weather and food 
Severe frosts destroy much of the nutriment in the grasses, ana 
they soon after cease to afford adequate nourishment. Long 
exposure to cold storms, with such food to sustain them, will 
rapidly reduce their condition. The only safe rule is to trans- 
fer them to their winter-quarters the first day they cease to 
thrive abroad. 

Drafting the Flock, 

For the purpose of ridding it of the supernumeraries, 
should be done at an earlier day. Such of the wethers as 
have attained their prime, and those ewes that have passed it, 
ought to be withdrawn soon after shearing, provided with the 
best feed, and rapidly fitted for the shambles. If they have 
been properly pushed on grass, they will be in good flesh by 
the time they are taken from it ; and if not intended for stall- 
feading, the sooner they are then disposed of the better. 



MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP FOR THE PRAIRIES 127 

Stall-Feeding. 

This will be lost on an ill-shaped, unthrifty beast. The 
perfection of form and health, and the uniform good condition, 
which characterize the thrifty one, indicate too plainly to be 
misunderstood, those which will best repay the care of their 
owner. The selection of any indifferent animal for stall-fat- 
tening, whether cattle or sheep, will inevitably be attended 
with loss. Such ought to be got rid of when first brought 
from the pasture, for the most they will bring. 

Management of Sheep for the Prairies, 

When destined for the prairies, sheep ought to commence 
their journey as early after shearing as possible. They are 
then disencumbered of their fleece, and do not catch and re- 
tain as much dust, as when driven later. Feed is also gener- 
ally better, and the roads are dry and hard. Young and 
healthy sheep should be selected, with early lambs; cr if the 
latter are too young, and the distance great, they should be 
left and the ewes dried off. A large wagon ought to accom- 
pany the flock, to carry such as occasionally give out ; or they 
may be disposed of whenever they become enfeebled. With 
good care, a hardy flock may be driven at the rate of 12 or 
14 miles a day. Constant watchfulness is requisite, to keep 
them healthy and in good plight. One-half the expense of 
driving, may be saved by the use of well-trained shepherd- 
dogs. 

When arrived at their destination, they must be thoroughly 
washed, to free them from all dirt, and closely examined as to 
any diseases they may have contracted, which, if discovered, 
should be promptly removed. A variety of suitable food and 
good shelter must be provided, for the autumn, winter, and 
spring ensuing, and every necessary attention given them. 
This would be necessary if indigenous to the country ; how 
much more so, when they have just undergone a campaign, 
to which neither they nor their race have been accustomed ! 

Sheep cannot be kept on the prairies without much care, 
artificial food, and proper attention ; and from a false system 
of economy, hitherto attempted by many, losses have occurred 
from disease and mortality in the flocks, sufficient to have 
made ample provision for the comfort and security of twice 
the number lost. More especially do they require proper 
food and attention, after the first severe frosts set in, which 
wither and kill the natural grasses. By nibbling at the fog, 



128 DOMESTIC ANIMALrf. 

(the frostbitten, dead grass,) they are inevitably subjeet to 
constipation, which a bountiful supply of roots, sulphur, (fee., 
is alone sufficient to remove. 

Roots, grain, and good hay ; straw, or corn-stalks, pea or 
bean vines, are essential to the preservation of their health and 
thrift during the winter, everywhere north of 39°. In sum- 
mer, the natural herbage is sufficient to sustain them in fine 
condition, till they shall have acquired a denser population of 
animals, when it will be found necessary to stock their meadows 
with the best varieties of artificial grasses. 

The praiiies seem adapted to the usual varieties of sheep 
introduced into the United States ; and of such are the flocks 
made up, according to the taste or judgment of the owners. 
Shepherd-dogs are invaluable to the owners of flocks, in those 
unfenced, illimitable ranges, both as a defence against the 
small prairie-wolf, which prowls around the sheep, but which 
are rapidly thinning off by the settlers ; and also as assistants 
to the s>epherds in driving and herding their flocks on the 
open ground. 

DISEASES OF SHEER 

The dry and healthful climate, the rolling surface, and the 
sweet and varied herbage, which generally prevail in the 
United States, insure perfect health to an originally sound and 
well-selected flock, unless peculiarly exposed to disease. ISfo 
country is better suited to sheep, than most of the northern 
and some of the southern parts of our own. In Europe, and 
especially in England, where the system of management is 
necessarily in the highest degree artificial, consisting fre- 
quently in early and continued forcing the system, folding on 
wet, plowed grounds, and the excessive use of that watery 
food, the Swedes turnip, there are numerous and fatal dis- 
eases. Hence the long list which lumbers the pages of for- 
eign writers on sheep. 

The most destructive of these are the rot, and epidemics 
which are scarcely known in America, except by report. The 
diseases incident to our flocks may generally be considered as 
casualties, rather than as inbred, or necessarily arising from 
the quality of food, or from local causes. It may be safely 
asserted, that with a dry pasture, well stocked with varied 
and nutritious grasses ; a clear, running stream ; sufficient shade 
and profession against severe storms ; a constant supply of 
aalt, tar, and sulphur in summer; good hay, and sometimes 



DIARRHCEA OR SCOURS. 129 

roots, with ample shelters in winter ; young sheep, originally 
sound and healthy, will seldom or never get diseased on 
American soil. 

The few diseases which it may be necessary here to mention, 
will be treated in the simplest manner. Remedies of general 
application, to be administered often by the unskilful and 
ignorant, must neither be elaborate nor complicated ; and, if 
expensive, the lives of most sheep would be dearly purchased 
by their application. 

A sheep which the owner has reared or purchased at the 
ordinary price, is the only domestic animal which can die 
without material loss to its owner. The wool and pelt will, 
in most instances, repay its cost, while the carcasses of other 
animals will be worthless except for manure. The Iocs of 
sheep from occasional disease, will leave the farmer's pocket 
in a very different condition from the loss of an equal value 
in horses or cattle. Yet humanity, equally with interest, dic- 
tates the use of such simple remedies for the removal of suffer- 
ing and disease, as may be within reach. 

Diarrhoea or Scours, 

When light and not long continued, calls for no remedy. 
It is a healthful provision of nature for the more rapid expul- 
sion of some offending matter in the system, which, if retained, 
might lead to disease. It is generally owing to improper food, 
as bad hay or noxious weeds ; to a sudden change, as from 
dry food to fresh grass ; or to an excess, as from overloading 
the stomach ; and sometimes, from cold and wet. 

The remedies are obvious. 

Change to suitable food in the first two cases ; enforce ab- 
stinence after repletion ; and provide warm, dry shelter, with 
light diet, if owing to the latter causes. 

When severe or long continued, a dose of castor oil may be 
given, and after its operation, give four grains of opium and 
one ounce chalk, and put them on dry food. Wheat-bran or 
shorts, and oat-meal or flaxseed gnc!, are both good for 
ailing lambs and sheep ; as are also ripe oats or wheat, fed in 
the sheaf, with well cured, sweet hay, and plenty of salt. 
Fresh boughs of the juniper, or pine and hemlock, help tc 
check the disorder. 

Looseness in the larger lambs is prevented by having chalk 
within their reach ; or if they refuse it, administer it in their 
food. When it happens soon after birth, place it with the 



130 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

ewe in a warm place, and feed the latter with plenty of oats, 
or other sound grain. If the milk be deficient, give the lamb 
cow's milk scalded, or let it suck the cow. The tail is some- 
times glued on to the buttocks, while the scours continue. 
Separate it immediately by the use of warm water, and rub 
the parts with dry loam or clay. 

Dysentery. 

This is a different and frequently a fatal disease, but re- 
sembles the former in its general symptoms. It is owing to 
prolonged diarrhoea, unwholesome or meager food, and other 
causes. Bleeding and physic should be resorted to, after 
which give warm, nourishing gruel. 

noven. 

For description and remedies, see hoven in cattle. 

Braxy. 

This is manifested by uneasiness, loathing of food, frequent 
drinking, carrying the head down, drawing the back up, 
swollen belly, feverish symptoms, and avoidance of the flock. 
It appears mostly in late autumn and spring, and may be in- 
duced by exposure to severe storms, plunging in water when 
hot, and especially by constipation brought on by feeding on 
frostbitten, putrid, or indigestible herbage. 

Remedies are not often successful, unless promptly applied. 
Bleed freely, and to effect this, in consequence of the stagnant 
state of the blood, immersion in a tub of hot water may be 
necessary. Then give two ounces Epsom salts, dissolved in 
warm water, with a handful of common salt. 

If this is unsuccessful, give a clyster made with a pipe-full 
of tobacco, boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water. 
Administer half, and if this is not effectual, follow with the 
remainder. Then beu. il:o animal in dry straw and cover 
;vith blankets, and assist the purgatives with warm gruels, 
followed by laxative provender till well. — (Blacklock.) Thou- 
sands of sheep have died on the prairies from braxy, in- 
duced by exposure and miserable forage. Entire preven- 
tion is secured by warm, dry shelters, and nutritious, digesti- 
ble food. 



DISEASES IN SHEEP. 131 



Costneness 



This is removed by giving two tablespoonfuls of castor 
oil every twelve hours, till the difficulty is removed; or give one 
ounce Epsom salts. This may be assisted by an injection of 
warm, weak suds and molasses. 

Stretches. 

Sheep sometimes stretch out their noses on the ground, and 
around their sides, as if in severe pain. This may be caused 
by an involution of one part of the intestine within another. 
When owing to this cause, the difficulty is frequently re- 
moved by jerking the animal by the hind-legs several times, 
when the pain disappears. 

But it is generally occasioned by costiveness, which see 
above. This may be prevented by using green food, roots, 
&c, once a week, or by allowing them to browse on the ever- 
greens, pines, hemlock, and firs. 

Poison, 

From laurel and other plants, is cured by pouring a gill of 
melted lard down the throat, or boil for an hour the twigs of 
the white ash, and give half to one gill of the strong liquor 
immediately ; to be repeated if not successful. 

Inflammation of the Lungs, 

This is produced by improper exposure to cold and wet. 
The remedy for slight affections, is warm, dry shelter, and 
light food. When severe, resort must be had to bleeding and 
purging freely, then to light bran or linseed mashes. 

Rot. 

This sometimes causes the death of a million of sheep in a 
single year in England, yet it is a disease almost unknown 
in this country. Foreign authorities ascribe it entirely to 
excessive humidity of climate, wet pastures, or too watery 
food. 

The preventives are therefore obvious. After the use of 
dry food and dry bedding, one of the best is the abundant 
use of pure salt. In violent attacks, early bleeding, followed 
by a dose of two ounces Epsom salts, to be repeated if neces- 
sary, with a change of diet and location, is all that can be done. 



132 DOMESTIC ANIMAL?!. 



Foot-Rot. 



This is frequently a prevalent disease among American 
sheep. It is sometimes spontaneous, but more often pro- 
duced by contagion. In the former case, it is caused by soft, 
rich, or moist pastures. A dry gravelly or rocky range, 
will of course be an effectual preventive when owing to this 
cause. 

The disorder is communicated by the absorbents of the 
foot coming in contact with the suppuration which has been 
left on the ground from the diseased part. Absolute safety 
against this contagion is secured only by a total avoidance of 
the walks of the infected animals, till repeated rains, or what 
is better, frosts, have disarmed the virus of its malignity. 

Remedies are variously compounded, of blue vitriol, verdigris, 
tar, spirits of turpentine, alum, saltpetre, salt, lime, copperas, 
white-lead, antimony, alcohol, urine, vinegar, &c, all of which 
have proved effectual. 

The hoof should first be pared and thoroughly scraped. 
Then apply a wash made of three parts of blue vitriol, one of 
verdigris pulverized finely, with scalding (not boiling) vinegar; 
stirring briskly till it is of the consistence or thin cream, and 
put it upon the affected part with a paint brush. It is a 
good preventive, to apply this to the 'sound feet of the affected 
animal. 

Another remedy is to use spirits of turpentine after scra- 
ping ; and if the disease is of long standing, add to the tur- 
pentine a strong decoction of blue vitriol dissolved in water. 
The foot should be examined every week, and the remedy re- 
peated till perfect soundness is restored. 

A feather dipped in muriatic or nitric acid, and applied to 
the parts after scraping and cleansing, is a good remedy. 
"When put upon the soles of foot-sore sheep, it hardens the 
hoofs, and enables them to travel better. 

Sheep are sometimes cured by keeping them on a dry sur- 
face, and driving over a barn-floor daily, which is well covered 
with quicklime. It may also be cured by dryness, and re- 
peated washing with soap-suds. 

The above ailment should not be confounded with a tempo- 
rary soreness, or inflammation of the hoof, occasioned by the 
irritation from the long, rough grasses which abound in low 
situations, which is removed with the cause ; or if it continues, 
apply white paint or tar, after thorough washing. 



PROTECTION FROxM THE GAD-FLY. 133 

Corrosion of the Flesh by Flies or Maggots, 

May be cmed by first removing the vermin ; then wash with 
Castile soap and warm soft water, after which apply white-lead 
with linseed oil. Tar put on the festering wound corrodes it ; 
but this, or spirits of turpentine placed on the sound parts near 
it, kee^, off the flies by their strong effluvia. 

If trie wound be slight, and the weather moderate, apply a 
little s] hits of turpentine with a strong decoction of elder bark. 

Flies on Sheep 

May be prevented by smearing with a composition made of 
two pounds lard or soft grease, one pound sulphur, half pint 
oil of amber, or oil of tar, or tar alone. A small spoonful is 
sufficient for a sheep. — Genesee Farmer. 

Protection froji the Gad-Fly. 

In July, August, and September, in the Northern states, the 
gad-fly (CEstus ovis) attacks the nostrils of the sheep, and there 
deposites its eggs, which, on being hatched, immediately crawl 
up and make a lodgment in the \ cad. They are frequently 
repelled by laying a thick coat 01 Lar on the bottom of the 
troughs, and sprinkling it with salt. The smell of the tar ad- 
hering to the nose will diive off the fly. A more effectual 
remedy is to apply it thoroughly with a brush to the external 
part of the nose. 

If a few furrows of loose earth are turned up in their pas- 
tures, the sheep will hold their noses to them, and thus keep 
off the fly. 

The symptoms of grubs in the head, are drooping of the 
head and ears, discharge of bloody and watery matter from the 
nostrils, and loss of strength in the limbs. 

If Avorms have made a lodgment, take half a pound of good 
Scotch snuff, and two quarts boiling water : stir, and let it stand 
till cold. Inject about a tablespoonful of this liquid and sed- 
iment up each nostiil, with a syringe. Repeat this three or 
four times at intervals, from the middle of October till Janua- 
ry : the grubs are then small, and will not have injured the 
sheep. The efficacy of the snuff will be increased, by adding 
half an ounce assafoetida, pounded in a little water. The ef- 
fect on the sheep is immediate prostration and apparent death, 
but they will soon recover. A decoction of tobacco will afford 
a substitute for snuff. — JV. Eng. Far. 

12 



134 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

Blaekloek's remedy is, to half fill the bowl of a pipe with 
tobacco, light it, and then hold the sheep, while a person in- 
serts the stem some distance into the nostril, and blows a few 
whiffs into the nose. The operation is then repeated with the 
other nostril. 

Swollen Mouth 

Is sometimes fatal. It is said to be cured by daubing the 
lips and mouth plentifully with tar. — Albany Cultivator. 

Foul Noses. 

Dip a small swab into tar, then roll in salt. Put some on 
the nose, and compel the sheep to swallow a small quantity. — 
American Far. 

A disease indicated by drooping, running at the eyes, weak- 
ness in the back and loins, inability to use the hind legs, was 
removed by turning the sheep into a pasture containing lobe- 
lia, (Indian tobacco.) Dried lobelia was also given, and pro- 
duced the same effect. — Cultivator, 

Scab. 

This loathsome disease, to which fine-woolled sheep are par- 
ticularly liable, is caused, like itch in the human subject, by a 
small insect, a species of the acari. - It is first manifest by the 
rubbing of the sheep, and soon after by one or more tufts of 
wool, which is loosened at the roots. On feeling the skin, a 
hard, dry lumor is perceptible. To prevent contagion, re- 
move the infected sheep to a separate pasture or yard as soon 
as discovered. 

Remedies. — The Spanish shepherds dissolve a little salt in 
their mouth, and drop it upon the infected part. 

When the tumor has become enlarged, the wool should be 
removed closely to the skin, the scab scraped with a curry- 
comb, then wash with strong soap-suds or ley, and afterwards 
rub thoroughly with sulphur or brimstone, mixed with lard or 
grease. 

An effectual remedy is prepared by taking one pound of to- 
bacco, which add to 12 quarts ley from wood ashes of suffi- 
cient strength for washing, and four quarts urine ; to this add 
another mixture of a gill high- wines ; ± oz. camphor ; £ oz. 
Spanish brown, and \ gill spirits of turpentine. A small quan- 
tity of this applied to the sore will never fail. 

Immediately after shearing, scab may readily be cured by 



TICKS AND LICE PELT-ROT. 135 

immersing the sheep, (excepting the head,) in a strong decoc- 
tion of tobacco liquor, adding a gill of spirits of turpentine for 
the first, and making a slight addition of fresh liquid for each 
sheep, enough to keep up the strength of the tobacco and tur- 
pentine, and taking care to rub the affected part thoroughly. 
For lambs, this liquor should be diluted, but yet left strong 
enough to kill ticks in one or two minutes, which may be 
ascertained by experiment. 

Scab is also removed by using a composition of one pound 
plug tobacco to three gallons of water, with lime-water and 
oil of vitriol added ; or a decoction of hellebore with vinegar, 
sulphur, and spirits of turpentine. — (U. D. Grove.) 

Scab is propagated more by using the same rubbing posts, 
than by contact with each other. Sheep in low condition are 
more subject to it than others. 

Ticks and Lice 

Sometimes infest sheep. Good feeding ana shelter is a 
partial preventive, but when they have made their lodgment, 
they must be dipped in a decoction of tobacco water. The 
most effectual time for their destruction, is a few days after 
shearing, when they will have left the naked bodies of the old 
ewes, to hide in the fleeces of the lambs. The dipping in 
tobacco water, with the addition of a small quantity of tur- 
pentine, is an effectual remedy. 

After dipping the sheep or lambs, the liquor should be 
pressed out from the wool, upon an inclined plane, so arranged 
as again to run into the vessel. 

Pelt-rot 

Will be recognised as one of the staple diseases of our 
native sheep, described on page 89. The wool in this case 
falls off, leaving the sheep partially or almost wholly naked ; 
but this is not accompanied with soreness or apparent disease. 
The animal must be provided with a Avarm stall and generous 
feed, and the naked skin should be anointed with tar and 
grease. The preventive is good keeping and shelter. 

Staggers or Sturdy, and Water in the Head, 

Sometimes affect sheep, but more especially lambs under a 
year old. The first is caused by the hydatid. It is considered 



130 DOMESTIC \NIMALS. 

as an almost incurable disorder, *)ut is sometimes removed Dy 
trepanning. 

Chancellor Livingston carefully supplied two thus attacked, 
with food for three months, when nature effected a cure. Re- 
moval to dry lands and purging, is a good precaution when 
they are first taken. 

An English lad lately cured one which had been given 
up, by boring with a gimlet into the soft place on the head, 
when the water rushed out, and the sheep immediately followed 
the others to the pasture. A correspondent of the Albany 
Cultivator asserts, that ^ a pint of melted lard poured down 
the throat, will cure blind staggers in ten minutes. 

Abortion 

Occurs sometimes, and is usually caused by excessive fright 
or exertion, and sometimes by severe exposure and poor feed. 
It is seldom fatal, except to the lamb. 

The Uterus 

Is occasionally protruded after lambing. It should be im- 
mediately returned, first washing it in warm milk and water, if 
any dirt adheres to it. For this, the hand only should be 
used. After rubbing it with lard or oil, hold up the hind legs, 
and gently replace the protruded parts, then keep the ewe 
quiet till fully recovered. 

For Garget, or Caked Bag, 

Keep the bag thoroughly drained of milk, for which purpose 
the lamb is the most efficient. If it is lost, another may be 
temporarily substituted. Purge freely with Epsom salts, and 
wash the udder repeatedly with very warm water. If matter 
forms, it should be opened with the lancet 

Bleeding. 

" Nothing tends so much to the recov^.j of an animal from 
a disease in which bleeding is required, as the rapid flow of 
the blood from a large orifice. Little impression, can be made 
on an acute disease by the slow removal of even a large 
quantity of blood, as the organs have time to accommodate 
themselves to the loss, which might, for any good it will do, 
as well be dispensed with. Either bleed rapidly, or not at all. 
The nearer the commencement of an ailment, in which you em- 



BLEEDING. "37 

ploy bleeding, the operation is resorted, to, the greater the 
chance of its doing good. 

Bleeding by nicking the under surface of the tail, does very 
well, where no great deal of blood is required, but it is not to 
be thought of if the veins of the face or neck can possibly be 
opened. These are to be taken in preference to a vein on the 
leg, as they are much more readily got at. The facial vein 
commences by small branches on the side of the face, and runs 
downwards and backwards to the base of the jaw, where it 
may be felt within two inches of the angle, or opposite the 
middle grinding tooth. It is here that the orifice must be 
made : the thumb of the left hand being held against the vein, 
so as to prevent the flow of blood towards the heart, will make 
it rise. 

Some prefer opening the jugular vein, which commences 
behind the eye and runs down the side of the neck. T his 
vessel is, however, more difficult to open than the former, be- 
ing better covered with wool, and not so easily exposed or 
made to swell. Stringing is the mode commonly resorted to 
for this end ; that is to say, a cord is drawn tightly round the 
neck close to the shoulder, so as to stop the circulation through 
the vein, and render it perceptible to the finger. 

A lancet is the instrument generally used in bleeding, though 
a well-pointed penknife will do at a pinch. The opening must 
always be made obliquely; but before attempting this, the 
animal must be secured, by placing it between the operator's 
legs, with its croup against a wall. The selected vein is then 
fixed by the fingers of the operator's left hand, so as to pre- 
vent its rolling or slipping before the lancet. Having fairly 
entered the vein, the point of the instrument must be elevated 
at the same time that it is pushed a little forward, by which 
motion it will be lifted from oi> cut its way out of the vein. 

A prescribed quantity of blood should never be draivn, for the 
simple reason that this can never be precisely stated. If the 
symptoms are urgent, as in all likelihood they will be, your best 
plan is not to stop the flow of blood till the animal fall or is 
about to fall. When this occurs, run a pin through the edges 
of the orifice, and finish by twisting round it a lock of wool." — 
(Blacldock.) 

Large cuts are healed 

By first sewing and then covering with salve. Smaller 
ones may be secured with an adhes've plaster or bandage. 

12* 



138 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

To protect Iambs from wolves and foxes, 

Smeai the neck plentifully with a mixture of tar and sul- 
phur. Bells are also said to guard the flock, as both are ex- 
cessively wary, and have a great dislike to any thing artificial. 
Large dogs will keep them at bay. A better remedy is to 
kill the marauders, whieh may be done by inserting strychnine 
in fresh meat and leaving it in their haunts. 



CHAPTER V 



THE HORSE. 



In nearly all ages and countries, the horse has been the 
devoted servant, and the object of the pride and affection of 
man. Among the semi-civilized Tartars of Middle and North- 
ern Asia; the aborigines of our remote Western prairies, 
reaching even beyond the Rocky Mountains, and many other 
rude nations, his flesh is used for food. Most of the tribes 
among the former use the milk for domestic purposes, and 
especially when fermented and changed to an unpleasantly 
sour and intoxicating beverage. But throughout the civilized 
world, with some slight exceptions, the horse is useful only 
for his labor. For this purpose he is pre-eminently fitted by 
his compact, closely-knit frame ; his sinewy, muscular limbs ; 
his easy, rapid stride ; his general form, and entire structure 
and habits. 

He is found in his wild condition in Central Asia, Siberia, 
and the interior of Africa ; and for 300 years he has been 
turned loose to follow his native instincts on the illimitable 
pampas of South America, and the wide-spread prairies of 
Mexico and California. In all these regions he closely resem- 
bles the medium varieties of the domesticated horse ; but as 
the natural result of his freedom, he possesses more fire and 
spirit than any other, except the blood-horse. 

Arabia is generally claimed as the original native locality of 
the horse, and as the only source frcm which he is to be de- 
rived in the requisite perfection for the highest improvement 
of the race. But Strabo, who wrote mOre than 1,800 years 
ago, asserts that the horse did not then flourish in Arabia, and 
it was not till some centuries later that I12 attained any de- 



THE HOUSE. 139 

cided superiority there. Great attention, however, has been 

{)aid in that country, since the era of Mahomet, to breeding a 
ight, agile, and enduring frame ; intelligence and tractability 
of character; and the perpetuation of these qualities by the 
most scrupulous regard for the purity of blood. 

This is equally true of the Barb or pure-bred horse of Mo- 
rocco, and those of the northern coast of Africa, in Egypt, 
among the Turks, and indeed wherever the followers of the 
Prophet are to be found. It is unquestionable, that the influ- 
ence of the Eastern blood among the choicest animals of mod- 
ern Europe, has been followed by great improvements in racing 
stock. Yet it is equally certain, that the race-horse, both of 
England and the United States, has accomplished what has 
never been demonstrated as within the ability of their progen- 
itors ; and on repeated trials with the Eastern horses, he has 
shoAvn himself confessedly their superior in speed, strength, 
and endurance. 

In 1825, two English horses ran against the two fleetest 
Cossacks which could be found throughout the entire region 
of their best blood, and in a continued race of 4*7 miles, the 
European took the stakes ; Sharper, the most successful, per- 
forming the distance in 2 hours and 48 minutes. About the 
same time, Recruit, an English horse of moderate reputation, 
easily beat Pyramus, the best Arabian on the Bengal side of 
India. 

The Leeds, the Darley, and the Godolphin Arabian ; the 
Lister and D'Arcey's White Turk, and other noted Eastern 
horses, would not compare in performance with many of their 
descendants. But these, with some other choice Arabians, on 
the best mares, and with every advantage for obtaining celeb- 
rity, have succeeded in establishing a fame as just as it has 
been enduring. Yet it must at the same time be remembered, 
that of the innumerable other pure-bred horses which have 
been tried in Europe, a few only have rescued their names 
from oblivion. 

The experience of Eastern blood in this country, in compar- 
ison with the best English, is decidedly in favor of the latter. 
We have had one horse of unsurpassed excellence, which a 
fortunate accident threw upon our shores a short time previous 
to 17*70. This was the white Barb Banger, which was pre- 
sented by the Emperor of Morocco, as the choice of his stud, 
to an English naval officer for some distinguished service. On 
his route homeward, the animal was set on shore for exercise 
at an intermec'iate port, where in his gambols he broke three 



140 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

of his legs, and thinking him worthless, his owner gave him to 
the commander of a New England merchantman, then present. 
He was readily accepted, and placed in slings on board of his 
vessel, and recovered. 

This animal stood for many years, in the eastern part of 
Connecticut ; and on their good mares, produced a numerous 
progeny of unrivalled cavalry horses, which rendered invalu- 
able services in the troop commanded by that consummate 
partisan, Captain (afterwards General) Lee, of the Revolution. 
It is said the favorite white field-horse of General Washington 
was of the same stock. He was afterwards sold to Captain 
Lindsey, as a special favor, and taken to Virginia, where he 
produced some good racers. 

Bussorah, a small sorrel horse, brought into this country ip 
1819, from the head of the Persian Gulf, got many choice 
roadsters, though no racers of celebrity. 

The Narraganset pacers, a race belonging to our Northern 
states, but for many years almost extinct, possessed for a long 
time an unrivalled leputation for spirit, endurance, and easy 
rapid motion under the saddle. They are said to have origi- 
nated from a Spanish horse, many of which are pure descend- 
ants of the Barb. 

As an offset to these isolated examples of success in this 
country, we have numerous instances of the importation of the 
best Orientals, which have been extensively used on some of 
our superior mares, without any marked effect. We shall refer 
to three prominent importations only. 

The first consisted of two choice Arabians, or Barbs, selected 
tn Tunis by General Eaton, and sent to his estate in Massachu- 
setts. The second was a present of four choice Barbs, from 
the Emperor of Morocco to our government, in 1830 ; and the 
third consisted of two Arabians, sent by the Imaum of Mus- 
cat, near the Persian Gulf, to our government in 1840. These 
were all claimed to be, and no doubt were, of the pure Koch- 
lani, the unadulterated line royal ; yet none have earned any 
distinguished reputation, either by their own performances or 
those of their descendants. 

It is to England we are mainly indebted for the great im- 
provement in our blood, road, and farm horses. A numerous 
race of fine horses was reared on that island, long previous to 
its authentic history ; for, in his first invasion Julius Cassar 
took many of them to Rome, where they immediately became 
great favorites, although she had already plundered every 
region of some of their best breeds. 



THE HORSE- 141 

What might have been the particular merit of ,he English 
horse at the time of the Norman invasion, is no known, but 
it is certain that the Saxon cavalry under Harold were speed- 
ily overpowered by William, at the battle of Hastings, which 
at once secured the throm to the Conqueror. History first 
informs us of the improvement of British horses, by importa- 
tions from abroad during this reign, which consisted of a num- 
ber of Spanish stallions. These were supposed to be strongly 
imbued with the Arabian blood, which had been brought over 
to that country by the Moors, who had founded the Saracenic 
empire in the Peninsula, three centuries before. More than a 
century later. John made some importations from Flanders, to 
give weight and substance to their draught and cavalry horses. 
The improvement of their various breeds was afterwards pur- 
sued, with more or less judgment and zeal, by other British 
monarchs, till they reached their highest excellence during the 
middle of the last century. 

Flying Childers, Eclipse, Highflyer, and others on the course, 
have pi obably exceeded in speed anything ever before accom- 
plished ; while the draught-horse, the roadster, the hackney, 
the cavalry-horse, and the hunter, attained a merit at that time 
which some judicious authorities claim has not been since in- 
creased. It is even asserted, that some of the more serviceable 
breeds have been seriously injured by too great an infusion of 
the blood ; while the almost universal absence of long heats 
on the turf has tended to the improvement of speed rather 
than bottom in the race-horse. 

The improvement of the horse in this country has not been 
a matter of record or history, till within a comparatively recent 
period. But it has silently, and with no little rapidity, been 
Toing forward for more than a century, till we have obtained 
a race of animals, throughout the Eastern and Middle states at 
leasi, which probably equal those of any other country for 
adaptedness to draught, the road, and the saddle. This im- 
provement has been mainly brought about by the importation 
of some of the best and stoutest of the English blood. In breed- 
ing from these for purposes of utility, particular reference has 
been paid to strength, enduringnrss, and speed. No horses 
surpass our best four-mile bloods ; none equal our trotters ; 
and though much inequality exists in those bred for \ arious 
other uses, yet for profitable service, it is believed, no equal 
number of animals elsewhere can exceed those in the region 
above indicated. 

It would be a superfluous task to attempt enumerating all 



142 DCMESTIC ANIMALS. 

the imported horses that have contributed to thib improvement. 
Each good animal has done something. But among the ear- 
lier horses which may he named with distinction, as having 
effected much for our useful beasts, are Lath, "Wildair, Slender, 
Sourkrout, Tallyho, Figure, Bay Richmond, Expedition, Baro- 
net, and a host of others. 

Pre-eminent among these, was imported Messenger. He 
was foaled in 1780, imported in 1788, and died in 1808. He 
stood in different places in New Jersey, and in Dutchess, 
Westchester, and Queens counties in New York ; and upon 
the mares derived from the foregoing and other good horses, 
he got a numerous progeny of illustrious descendants. Of 
these we may name those capital stallions, Potomac, Hamhn- 
tonian, Bay Figure, Engineer, Mambrino, Tippoo Saib, Colum- 
bus, Gunn's, and Bushe's Messenger, and many others, which 
were extensively disseminated over the Northern and Middle 
states ; and he has the credit of imparting a large share of his 
merits to that nonpareil of horses, his grandson, American 
Eclipse. His posterity were so numerous and widely spread, 
that it may be safely asserted, that of the best horses bred in 
the above states, scarcely one can now be found which does 
not trace one or more crosses to this distinguished sire. His 
success in producing roadsters, besides his blood qualities of 
speed and endurance, consisted in his great strength, and the 
peculiar formation of his limbs, large forehand and deep quar- 
ters, in which he excelled any other of the imported bloods. 

As an illustration of what may be accomplished by judi- 
cious breeding with the present materials in our hands, we 
mention one family of the American roadster, which is strong- 
ly tinctured with blood, and which has attained an enviable 
notoriety among the choicest of the Northern horses. They 
are derived from the Morgan horse of Vermont, that was 
foaled in Springfield, Mass., in 1793. He was got by True 
Britton, supposed to have been bred by Gen. Delancey of 
New York, and got by imported Wildair, (or one of his sons,) 
a horse of such distinguished excellence, as to have been re- 
exported to England, for the benefit of his stock. 

The Morgan horse stood in Vermont from 1795 till his 
deatl , at an advanced age. From him and the choice mares 
of Vermont, descended many excellent colts; and his merits 
were inherited in an eminent degree by three of his sons, 
which stood in the same state and continued the career of im- 
provement commenced by the sire. The result has been the 
production of a family of roadsters, of much similarity of ap« 



THE HORSE. 143 

pearance^ and uniformity of character, unsurpassed by any 
others for serviceable qualities. 

IPtfij are of medium size, from 13} to 15 bands high; 
with a well-formed bead and neck; high withers; deepebest; 
round body; short back; long quarters; broad flat legs: 
moderately small feet ; long wavy mane and tail ; presenting 
altogether the beau ideal ot the road horse. They are spirit- 
ed, docile, hardy, and easily kept. They have an easy, rapid 
trot, and glide along with a good load, without clatter or 
apparent effort, at the rate of ten or twelve miles an hour. 

This family of horses has not of course been bred long 
enough within themselves, to have attained to the eminence 
of a distinct breed. The j are mentioned, merely as a type of 
what the serviceable roadster ought to be, and what he may 
become by the use of the proper instruments for breeding. 
And if the materials already in our hands are intelligently 
and perseveringly used, we can produce all we require of 
horse-flesh. 

Besides our unsurpassed blood-horses, we have others de- 
rived from various sources, and especially from the different 
English breeds, all of which are variously compounded, with 
the first and with each other. On our northeastern frontier, 
the Canadian prevails, a bastard but not degenerate race, 
made up of the French Norman and the English or American. 
At the extreme South and West, we have the horse of Spanish 
origin, obtained in his domestic state in Florida and Louisiana ; 
and from another branch of the Spanish, are descended the 
wild horses of Mexico and the more northern prairies. These 
are diversified in character, and generally possess medium 
size and merit. 

The Conestoga, a heavy roadster, is principally reared in 
Pennsylvania, and is used for the team and truck. He is 
an amalgamation of several breeds, but probably owes a 
share of his character to the Flemish horse, for which there 
was a decided partiality among the numerous German emi- 
grants of that state. 

Several varieties of ponies are to be found in different sec- 
tions, but principally among the French, the half-breed, and 
the Indians upon the frontiers, who have bred a stunted race 
from the Canadian or wild-horse, and such others as could 



* Many of the Morgan horses have the steep remp and heavy breast and neck, 
which indicate a Norman cross on the side of their dams. These have been 
largely imparted through the French horse in the adjoining Canadian settle 
ittenis ; but none of these are said to have characterized the founder of the raca 



144 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



survive the hard usage and scanty winter food anorded by 
nature and their rude husbandry. Many of these have con- 
siderable beauty and symmetry, and are fleet, hardy ??*A 
spirited. 

Fig. 27. 




an Horse. 



The modem JSformaiv, or mixture of the old French Norman 
draught-horse, (heavy-framed, big-limbed, but stout and 
hardy,) and the Andalusian, a descendant of the Moorish 
barbs, has been introduced within a few years, and will un- 
questionably become a very popular horse for many purposes. 
He exhibits the qualities of both ancestry in the proper pro- 
portions for farm service. He has a thick head ; lively, pricfc 



THE HORSE. 145 

^ars ; short, heavy neck ; large breast and shoulders ; strong 
Umb? ; well-knit back ; large quarters, with much wavy mane, 
ti\i. id fetlock. Like his French progenitor, he frequently 
&canu_ low in the withers, which enables him to throw great 
weight into the collar ; and the diminished, flattened leg. the 
wind and game derived from his Moorish blood, give him 
much of the capacity and endurance of the thorough-bred. 

The English cart-horse has for a long time made up some of 
the best, heavy dray-horses in the country, and late importa- 
tions have refreshed the breed with additional choice speci- 
mens. The Cleveland bay has been introduced of late, and 
promises good carriage-horses from our well-spread, sizeable 
mares. The Norfolk trotter Bclfounder was imported many 
years since, and with our high-bred mares, has produced many 
choice roadsters and trotters. 

The remainder of our horse-flesh deserving of any notice, is 
chiefly composed of such as are superior in point of blood. 
The improvement in the American horse, from this source, is 
conspicuous and decided. Judicious breeders still look for 
qualities in ftie descendants, which they sought for in their 
imported sires, and the infusion of some of the stoutest of the 
blood is rapidly gaining an ascendency in the general stock. 
Our intelligent agriculturists should look to this subject closely, 
and not permit this system to proceed to an extent that may 
be prejudicial to their value as draught-horses, as has been 
done in some portions of England and our Southern states. 

There is no danger from excess of blood, if it be of the right 
kind ; but it is seldom found combining that fulness and stout- 
ness, and that docility and tractableness of disposition, which 
are essential to the gig-horse or the horse of all work. Yorke 
says truly, that "the road -horse may possess different degrees 
of blood, according to the nature of the country and the work 
required of him. [He might have added with propriety, and, 
according to the clmracter of the blood.~\ His legs will be too 
slender ; his feet too small ; his stride too long, and he will 
rarely be able tc trot. Three parts, or half, and for the horse 
of all work, even less than that, will make a good and useful 
animal." For the saddle only, the high-bred, if not disposed 
to be vicious, is never objectionable to an enterprising and 
accomplished rider. His long elastic pasterns, giving easy, 
flexible motions ; bis quick and almost electrical obedience 
when under thorough discipline ; his habitual canter and high 
spirit, always commend him for this purpose. 

13 



146 



DOMESTIC \NIMAL8. 

Fig. 28. 




Points of a Horse. * 

I. Muzzle— 2. Race.— 3. Forehead.— 4. Poll.— 5. Crest.— 6. Withers.— 7. Back.— 
S. Loins.— 9. Hip— 10. Croup.— 11. Dock.— 12. Quarter.— 13. Thigh, or Gaskin.— 
14. Ham-string.— 15. Point of the Hock.— 16. Cannon.— 17. Fetlock.— 18. Large 
Pastern.— 19. Small Pastern —20. Hoof.— 21. Coronet.— 22. Ham, or Hock.— 23. 
Sheath.— 24. Flank.— 25. Girth.— 26. Elbow.— 27. Heel.— 28. Hoof.— 29. Small Pas- 
tern.— 30. Large Pastern.— 31. Fetlock.— 32. Cannon.— 33. Knee.— 34. Arm.— 35. 
Breast, or Bosom.— 36. Point of the Shoulder.— 37. Windpipe.— 38. Gullet.— 39. 
Jowl. 

Some of the prominent external points of a fine Saddle or Gig 

Horse, 

Are, a moderately small head, free from fleshiness ; fine 
muzzle and expansive nostrils ; broad at the throat and wide 
between the eyes, which denotes intelligence and courage ; a 
dished face indicates high breeding, and sometimes viciousness ; 
a convex or Roman nose frequently betokens the reverse ; the 
ears rather long, yet so finely formed as to appear small, and 
playing quickly like those of a deer; the eyes cnar, full, and 
confident, with a steady forward look. Glancing them back- 
ward or askance with a sinister expression, and with none or 
only a slight movement of the head, is indicative of a mis- 
chievous temper. 

The neck should be handsomely arched, and fine at the 
junction with the head, while the lower extremity must be 
full and muscular, and well expanded at the breast and shoul- 
ders. The latter ought to be high and run well back ; the 
withers strong, firmly knit, and smooth ; the breast neither toe 



THE HORSE. 147 

prominent nor reti eating, too wide nor too narrow, and supported 
by a pair of straight fore-legs, standing well apart. The chest 
should be deep, and the girth . large ; the body full, r.nd not 
drawn up too much in the flank ; the back short, and the hips 
gathered well towards the withers ; the loins wide and rising 
above the spine ; the ribs spi inging nearly at right angles from 
the back, giving roundness to the body. The hips ought to 
be long to the root of the tail, and the latter may approach to 
near the line of the back, which is a mark of good breeding. 

Both the thigh and hock should be large and muscular ; 
and between the hock or knee and pastern, the legs should be 
broad, flat, and short ; the hind legs properly bent, and all 
well placed under the body ; the pasterns of moderate length, 
and standing slightly oblique ; the hoof hard, smooth, round 
before, and wide at the heel ; the frog large and sound ; and 
the sole firm and concave. A white hoof is generally tender, 
easy to fracture and to lame, and difficult to hold a shoe. 

The draught-horse ought to differ from the foregoing, in pos- 
sessing a heavier and shorter neck ; a wider and stouter breast, 
and low withers, so as to throw the utmost weight into the 
collar ; a heavier body and quarters ; larger legs and feet ; 
and more upright shoulders and pasterns. 

Considerations which affect the Value of the Horse. 

The color is not material, provided it be not pied or mealy. 
No better color for horses can be found than the dark bay or 
brown, with black mane, tail, and legs. But most of the other 
colors are frequently found with the best horses. 

Hard-mouthed horses, when accompanied with great spirit, 
are objectionable, as they require peculiar bitting and the 
utmost vigilance. 

The paces and action of a horse are important, for if good 
they give a much greater capacity for performance. Some 
of these depend on form and structure, and are unchangeable ; 
others are the result of breaking. All horses should be 
taught to walk fast, as it is their easiest and most economical 
pace, and it will help them over a great deal of ground in a 
day, even with a heavy load, and with comparatively little 
effort. A horse that steps short and digs his toes into the 
ground, is orthless as a traveller, and suited only to a ferry- 
boat or bark-mill. 

It is important that a horse be good-tempered. If inclined 
to viciousness, he should be gently yet firmly managed when ii 



145 DOMESTI ANIMALS. 

is first apparent. A resort to ^reat severity will be justified, 
if necessary to conquer him ; for if once- allowed to become a 
habit, it will be difficult to cure him. Grooms and mischievous 
stable-boys, frequently do much injury by their idle tricks 
with horses ; and when detected, they should be discharged 
at once. 

Some horses are nervous, easily excited, and start at every 
unusual noise or .object. Others are restive and fretful, and 
ever anxious to be on the move. Kindness, and firm, yet mild 
treatment, by which their motions and will are at all times 
controlled, and their confidence secured, are the only reme- 
dies. 

Others are inclined to sluggishness. These should have 
stimulating food, and never be overloaded or overworked, and 
then kept well to their paces. Whatever they are capable of 
performing, can be got from them in this way only.' Habit has 
great influence with animals, as with man; and when within 
the compass of his ability, he may be habituated to any rea- 
sonable physical exertion. 

Breeding, 

Agreeably to the general principles before enumerated, such 
animals should be selected, as most eminently possess those 
points which it is desired to propagate, and these, they should 
not only exhibit in themselves, but should inherit as far as 
possible, from a long line of ancestry. For the perpetuation 
of particular points in progeny, it would be safer to rely on 
the latter quality than the former. 

The selection of a mare, relatively larger than the horse, is 
an important rule in breeding, and it is believed that much of 
the success of Arabian and other Eastern horses as stock- 
getters, has resulted from the application of this principle. 
They possess valuable traits, but condensed within too small a 
compass. When sueh an animal is put to a well-bred, larger 
mare, the foetus has abundance of room and nourishment to 
develop and perfect the circumscribed outlines of the male 
parent, and acquire for itself increased volume and character. 

The horse ought not to be less than four or five, and the 
mare one year older, before being put to breeding. It would 
be still better to defer it for two or three years, or till the 
frame is fully matured. 



MANAGEMENT OF THE COLT CASTRATING. 149 

The Gestation of the Mare 

Sometimes varies from 44 to 56 weeks, but she usually 
goes with young from 4V to 50 ; and it is advisable she should 
take the horse at a time which will ensure the foaling when 
the weather is settled, and there is a fresh growth oi grass. 
She will be the better for light "working till near the time of 
foaling, if well, but not too abundantly fed. In a few days 
after this, she may resume moderate labor ; and if not in » e 
way or troublesome, the foal may run with her ; but if she is 
exposed to heating, it should be confined till she cools, as 
suckling then is decidedly injurious to it. 

The mare is in danger of slinking her foal from blows and 
over-exertion, the use of smutty grain, foul hay, or offensive 
objects or smell ; and when this has once occurred, which 
happens usually in the fourth or fifth month, she should after- 
wards be generously fed at that period, and only moderately 
worked, to prevent a recurrence of the casualty. When liable 
to slinking, the mare should be removed from others in foal, 
lest a peculiar sympathy should excite an epidemic. 

The Mare comes in Heat 

From nine to eleven days after foaling, when she should be 
put to the horse, if it be desirable to have a colt the following 
season. She comes round at intervals of about nine days. 

Management of the Colt. 

The colt may be weaned when five to seven months old: 
and preparatory to this, while with the mare, may be taught 
to feed on fine hay, meal, or oats. When taken away, he 
should be confined beyond a hearing distance of the dam, and 
plentifully supplied with rowen or aftermath hay, crushed oats, 
or wheat shorts. It is economy to provide a warm shelter 
through the inclement season for \\\ animals, and especially for 
colts, which, with all other young, should have an abundance 
of nutritious food. They will thus grow evenly and rapidly, 
and attain a size and stamina at two years :>ld, they would not 
otherwise have acquired at three. 

Castrating. 

The colt should be altered at about one year, but if thin in 
the neck and light before, the operation may be deferred to 
such time as the requisite development is secured. Few oi 

13* 



150 DOMESTIC .ANIMALa. 

the Frencli diligence and farm horses, and scarcely any of the 
Oriental, are ever castrated. They are thought to be more 
hardy and enduring ; but the slight advantage they may 
possibly possess in this respect, would hardly compensate for 
the trouble and inconvenience too frequently arising from their 
management. 

The operation should be performed late in the spring or 
early in autumn, while the weather is mild. If in high con- 
a!uon, the animal must first be bled and physicked. If large 
and fractious, he must be cast. Some back him into the an- 
gle of a worm fence, where he is firmly held by the head with 
a bridle, and the operator accomplishes the object without 
any trouble or material restiveness from the animal while 
standing. The scrotum should be opened on both sides, and 
the testicles cut, or rather the cord scraped off, which prevents 
much bleeding. The wound may be dressed with a little 
lard ; then turn him loose in a pasture which has a shelter 
from sun, wind, or rain. Another method of castrating is by 
torsion, or twisting. 

Docking 

Is practised by many, but merely to gratify an absurd and 
cruel caprice, without a single advantage, and the animal is 
better in every respect with the tail unmutilated. If done at 
all, it should be when young, and with a single stroke of the 
knife, or chisel and mallet ; and if the weather be favorable, 
no further attention is necessary. 

Nicking. 

This inhuman custom is now getting unfashionable, and we 
omit any description of it. 

Breaking. 

While feeding in the stable, the colt should be gently treat- 
ed, and accustomed to the halter and bit, which prepares him 
for breaking. If permitted to run with the others while at 
work, he becomes familiarized to it, and when harnessed by 
the side of some of his well-trained mates, he seems to consider 
his discipline rather a privilege than a task. The colt may be 
taken in hand for breaking at three years of age, and thor- 
oughly broken to light work at four, but should not be put to 
hard service till six or eight. A due regard to humanity and 
sound judgment, in thus limiting the burden in his early years, 



LONGEVITY OF THE HORSE FEEDING. 151 

would save much disease and suffering to the animal, and 
profit to the owner, by his unimpaired strength and prolonged 
life. The annual loss from neglecting this precaution is enor- 
mous, which might be entirely avoided by less eagerness to 
grasp the substance, while as yet the shadow only is within 
reach. Many animals are thus broken down at twelve, and 
are in their dotage at fifteen, while others of good constitution, 
if well treated, perform hard service till thirty. 

Longevity of the Horse. 

Mr. Percival mentions one that died at 62. Mr. Mauran, of 
New York, has a fine gig and saddle horse, now in his 45th 
year, sound, spirited, and playful as a kitten. He is of a dark 
brown, with a tanned nose. We never yet saw a horse with 
a buff or bear muzzle, that had not great endurance. 

American Eclipse was successfully covering mares in Ken- 
tucky at the age of 32, the result of late and light service till 
his sinews became fully matured. We have frequently seen a 
large, compact, flea-bitten horse at work, dragging a heavy 
load in a single cart, which was formerly used as one of Gov- 
ernor Maitland's coach-horses, and though upwards of 30, he 
was apparently as sound and vigorous as an overtasked colt 
of seven or eight. 



o 



Feeding. 

The vigor and duration of the horse depend much on proper 
feeding. Like the cow and sheep, he may be made to subsist 
on animal food, fish, and almost every species of nutritious 
vegetable. But his natural and proper aliment is the grasses, 
grain, and roots. In the middle and northern sections of this 
country, his dry forage is almost invariably good meadow-hay, 
generally timothy, which is the richest of the cultivated grasses. 
At the^South, this is often supplied by the blades of Indian 
corn. But in all the states, a great variety of the grasses and 
clover are used. 

When put to hard labor, grain ought always to accompany 
hay in some form. Of the different kinds of grain, oats are 
peculiarly the horse's food, and they are always safe, digesti- 
ble, and nutritive. Barley is the best substitute for it. Wheat 
and Indian corn are sometimes given, but both are unsuitable , 
the first is too concentrated, and the last too heating. They 
ought to be sparingly used, and only when ground and mixeu 
with chaff. The offal of wheat is never objectionable. 



152 DOMESTIC Aft MAT 3- 

Grain is always more advantageously fed when ground or 
cwished, and wet some time previous to eating ; and it is still 
better when cooked. On both sides of the Mediterranean, in 
the Barbary States, in Spain, France, and Italy, much of the 
food is given in small baked cakes, and the saving in this way 
is much greater than the expense of preparing it. 

When confined to dry food, roots or apples fed once a day are 
always beneficial. They keep the bowels open, the appetite 
and general health good, and contribute largely to the nutri- 
ment of the animal. Carrots are the best of the roots, as besides 
giving muscle and working power, they, more than any other, 
improve the wind and prevent all tendency to heaves. They 
have even been found effectual in removing an obstinate cough. 
By many of the keepers of livery stables, they are always 
used, for which purpose they command the same price as oats. 
Potatoes, parsnips, beets, and Swedes turnips, in the order 
mentioned, are next to be preferred. Potatoes are improved 
by cooking. 

Mixtures of food are best, as of cut hay, meal, and roots. 
Old horses, or such as are put to hard labor, will do much 
better if their food be given in the form easiest of digestion. 
No inconsiderable part of the vital power is exhausted by the 
digestion of dry, raw food. 

Horses ought to be fed, and if possible, exercised or worked 
regularly, but never on a full stomach. This is a frequent 
cause of disease, and especially of broken wind. If their food 
is given at the proper time, and the horse be allowed to finish 
it at once, without expecting more, he will lie down quietly 
and digest it. This will be much more refreshing to him, 
than to stand at the rack or trough, nibbling continually at his 
hay or oats. What remains after he has done feeding, should 
be at once withdrawn. 

They should have water in summer three times, and in win- 
ter twice a day. Soft or running water is much the best. 
While working, and they are not too warm, they may have it 
as often as they desire. Neither should they be fed when 
heated, as the stomach is then fatigued and slightly inflamed, 
and is not prepared for digestion - till the animal is again cool. 
Salt should always be within reach, and we have found an 
occasional handful of clean wood-ashes, a preventive of disease 
and an assistance to the bowels and appetite. 



SKELETON OF A HORSE 

Fi*29. 



153 




Skeleton of a Horse. 

A The Head.— a The posterior maxillary or under jaw.— 6 The superior max- 
illary or upper jaw. A little lower down than the letter is a foramen, through 
which pass the nerves and blood-vessels which chiefly supply the lower part ol 
the face — c The orbit, or cavity containing the eye.— d The nasal bones, or bones 
of the nose. — e The suture dividing the parietal bones below from the occipital 
cones above.—/ The inferior maxillary bone, containing the upper incisor teeth. — 
B The Seven Cervical Vertebrae, or bones of the neck. — C The Eighteen Dorsal 
Vertebrae, or bones of the back. — D The Six Lumbar Vertebras, or bones of the 
loins.— -E The Five Sacral Vertebrae, or bones of the haunch.— F The Caudal 
Vertebra, or bones of the tail, generally about fifteen. — G The Scapula, or shoul- 
der-blade.— H The Sternum, or fore-part of the chest.— I The Costae or ribs, seven 
or eight articulating with the sternum, and called the true ribs ; and ten or eleven 
united together by cartilage, called the false ribs.— J The Humerus, or upper bone 
of the arm. — K The Radius, or upper bone of the arm. — L The Ulna or elbow. 
The point of the elbow is called the Olecranon. — M The Carpus, or knee, con- 
sisting of seven bones.— N The metacarpal bones. The larger metacarpal or can 
non or shank in front, and the smaller metacarpal or splint bone behind. — g The 
fore pastern and foot, consisting of the Os Suffraginis, or the upper and larger 
pastern bone, with the sesamoid bones behii 1, articulating with the cannon and 



154 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

greater pastern, the Os Corona;, or lesser pastern; the Os Pecis, or 
Bone ; and the Os Naviculare, or navicular, or shuttle-bone, not seen, and artic- 
ulating with the smaller pastern and coffin-bones. — h The corresponding bones oi 
the hind-feet.— The Haunch, consisting of three portions : the Ilium, the 
Ischium, and the Pubis.— P The Femur, or thigh.— Q The stifle joint with the 
Patella. — R The Tibia, or proper leg bone ; behind is a small bone called the 
fibula.— S The Tarsus, or hock, composed of six bones. The prominent part i* 
the Os Calcis, or point of the Hock.— T The Metatarsals of the hind leg. 



DISEASES. 

The list is long and fearful, and even the brief one subjoined, 
will be found sufficiently great to inculcate the utmost caution 
in their management. The horse in his natural condition is 
subject to few ailments. It is only in his intensely artificial 
state, and when made the slave of man, that he becomes a 
prey to disease in almost every shape. A careful and judi- 
cious attention to his diet, water, exercise, stable, and general 
management, will prevent many of those to which he is sub- 
ject. 

Glanders. 

This is one of the most alarming. The first and most 
marked symptom is a discharge from the nostrils of a peculiar 
character. The disease produces inflammation there and in the 
windpipe, and in aggravated cases passes down to the lungs, 
which are soon destroyed. 

It is propagated by contagion, by exposure in humid stables, 
and is induced by hereditary indisposition and great exhaus- 
tion. Youatt says, there is not a disease which may not lay 
the foundation for glanders. ' The poison resides in the n^sal 
discharge, not in the breath. When exposed to it, the man- 
gers should be thoroughly scraped, washed with soap and 
water, and afterwards with chloride of lime. All the clothing 
and harness, which may have received any of the contagious 
matter, must be thoroughly cleansed and baked. 

The best preventives we dry, clean, and well-ventilated 
stables, proper exercise, green food in summer, and roots in 
winter. 

The disease may be arrested in its early stages, by turning 
the animal on a dry pasture, but it is liable to return on sub- 
sequent confinement. Iodine has lately been announced as a 
remedy, but of the certainty of its effects, we are not aware. 

It is generally considered incurable, -md when thoroughly 
seated, it may be deemed an act both of humanity and econo- 
my to terminate the existence of its victim at once. This 
course becomes a duty, from the fact that many grooms, by 



FARCY LAAK'AS—- POLL-EVIL HEAVES. 155 

their attendance on glandered horses, have been affected, and 
though the disease is, in their case, more manageable, yet it is 
frequently fatal. 

Farcy. 

This is intimately connected with glanders, and the diseases 
frequently run into each other. 

Lampas, 

This consists in the swelling of the bars of the mouth to a 
level or even above the teeth. It may occur from inflamma- 
tion of the gums ; shedding of the teeth ; a febrile tendency, 
and from over-feeding or want of exercise. It will generally 
subside by low dieting and proper exercise ; or it may be at 
once relieved by lancing the bars with a sharp penknife. 

Poll-evil. 

This arises from some contusion or injury to the head, 
which produces a swelling that eventually suppurates. The 
inflammation may be abated, in its earliest stages, by a blister ; 
and in its later, by bleeding, physic, and cold lotions applied 
to the part. If these are ineffectual, and the swelling con- 
tinues, it should be hastened by poultices, and warm, stimula- 
ting lotions ; and when fully formed, the tumor must be open- 
ed, so as to permit all the matter to run out. Repeated ap- 
plications of salt will sometimes cure it. 

Heaves. 

All those affections, distinguished in the English veterinary 
works as pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs, chronic cough, 
thick and broken ivind, consumption, &c, are popularly desig- 
nated as heaves. To some or all of these the horse may have 
an hereditary or constitutional tendency. Their incipient 
stages are also induced by a sudden transition from heat to 
cold, and sometimes from cold to close and hot stables ; and 
by a chilly wind or damp stables, especialhy after severe ex- 
ercise. Feeding on musty, dry hay, or on straw, will produce 
an irritation which may lead to heaves. 

Inflammation of the kings is frequently dangerous, and re 
quires the immediate and full use of the lancet. After tht 
inflammation is decidedly allayed, by copious bleeding, smaL 
doses of aloes may be given, and frequent injections of 



156 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

warm soap and water, which should be omitted the moment 
the feces become soft and approaching to the fluid state. 
Blistering the sides and brisket, to be ofien repeated if other- 
wise ineffectual, must be resorted to. Convalescence should 
be followed with sedative medicines, and during all the severe 
stages of the disease, withhold all food, except light gruels 
after protracted abstinence. As health returns, put the ani- 
mal out to grass. 

Inflammation of the lungs is sometimes succeeded by a 
chronic cough, and the other maladies enumerated. When 
firmly seated, it is incapable of removal. Its effects can be 
alleviated, and w r ith suitable food and treatment, the horse 
may be made to do much moderate labor for many years, but 
he can never become sound or sustain great exertion. Equal 
and proper temperature, moist, stimulating food, and espe- 
cially carrots or potatoes, and moderate exercise, (but never 
on a full stomach,) and dry, clean stables, are all the remedies 
that can be prescribed. 

Catarrh or Horse Distemper. 

This sometimes attacks the horse in the spring or fall, and 
is shown by soreness and swelling in the glands of the throat, 
a cough ; difficulty of swallowing ; discharging at the nose : 
and general prostration. It is seldom fatal, if properly 
managed. Give light bran-mashes, purge thoroughly, and 
keep warm. If he is violently attacked,, he may be bled 
while fever exists ; and blisters or setons may be applied, to 
reduce the swelling, if extreme. The disease is contagious, 
and the animal should be. at once placed where he cannot 
communicate it. 

Spasmodic Colic. 

Symptoms. — The attack of colic is usually very sudden. 
There is often not the slightest warning. The horse begins 
to shift his posture, look round at his flanks, paw violently, 
strike his belly with his feet, and crouch in a peculiar man- 
ner, advancing his hind limbs under him ; he will then sud- 
denly lie, or lather fall down, and balance himself upon his 
back, with his feet- resting on his belly. The pain now seems 
to cease for a .little while, and he gets up and shakes himself, 
and begins tc feed ; the respite, however, is but short — the 
spasm returns more violently — every indication of pain is in- 
creased — he heaves al the flacks, breaks out into a profus* 



SPASMODIC COLIC. 157 

perspiration, and throws himself more recklessly about. In 
the space of an hour or two, either the spasms begin to relax, 
and the remissions are of longer duration, or the torture is 
augmented at every paroxysm ; the intervals of ease are 
fewer and less marked, and inflammation and death super- 
vene. The pulse is but little affected at the commencement, 
but it soon becomes frequent and contracted, and at length is 
scarcely tangible. 

Among the causes of colic are, the drinking of cold water 
when the horse is heated. There is not a surer origin of vio- 
lent spasm than this. Hard water is very apt to produce this 
effect. Colic will sometimes follow the exposure of a horse 
to the cold air or a cold wind after strong exercise. Green 
food, although, generally speaking, most beneficial to the horse, 
yet, given in too large a quantity, or when he is hot, will 
frequently produce gripes. Doses of aloes, both large and 
small, are not unfrequent causes of colic. 

In some horses there seems to be a constitutional predis- 
position to colic. They cannot be hardly worked, or exposed 
tc unusual cold, without a fit of it. In many cases, when these 
horses have died, calculi have been found in some part of the 
alimentary canal. Habitual costiveness and the presence of 
calculi, are frequent causes of spasmodic colic. The seat of 
colic is occasionally the duodenum, but oftener the ileum or 
the jejunum ; sometimes, however, both the caecum and colon 
are affected. Fortunately, we are acquainted with several 
medicines that allay these spasms ; and the disease often 
ceases as suddenly as it appeared. 

Remedies. — Turpentine is one of the most powerful remedies, 
especially in union with opium, and in good warm ale. A so- 
lution of aloes will be advantageously added to the turpen- 
tine and opium. If relief is not obtained in half an hour, it 
will be prudent to bleed, for the continuance of violent spasm 
may produce inflammation. Some practitioners bleed at first, 
and it is far from bad practice ; for although the majority of 
cases will yield to turpentine, opium, and aloes, an early 
bleeding may occasionally prevent the* recurrence of inflam- 
mation, or at least mitigate it. If it is clearly a case of colic, 
half of the- first dose may be repeated, with aloes dissolved in 
warm water. The stimulus produced on the inner surface of 
the bowels by the purgative, may counteract the irritation 
that caused the spasm. 

The belly should be well rubbed with a brush or warm cloth, 
but not bruised and injured by the broom-handle rubbed over 

14 



J5S DOMESTIC ANIMALS.. 

it, with all thei: strength, by two great fellows. The horse 
should be walk 3d about or trotted moderately. The motion 
thus produced in the bowels, and the friction of one intestine 
over the other, may relax the spasm, but the hasty gallop might 
speedily cause inflammation to succeed to colic. 

Clysters of warm water, or containing a solution of aloes, 
should be injected. The patent syringe will here be exceedingly 
useful. A clyster of tobacco-smoke may be thrown up as a 
last resort. 

When relief has been obtained, the clothing of the horse, 
saturated with perspiration, should be removed, and fresh and 
dry clothes substituted. He should be well littered down in a 
warm stable or box, and have bran mashes and lukewarm wa- 
ter for the two or three next days. Some persons give gin, or 
gin and pepper, or even spirit of pimento, in cases of gripes. 
This course of proceeding is, however, exceedingly objection- 
able. It may be useful, or even sufficient, in ordinary cases 
of colic ; but if there should be any inflammation, or tendency 
to inflammation, it cannot fail to be highly injurious. 

Flatulent Colic. 

This is altogether a different disease from the former. It is 
not spasm of the bowels, but inflation of them, from the pres- 
ence of gas emitted by undigested food. Whether collected 
in the stomach, or small or large intestines, all kinds of vege- 
table matter are liable to ferment. In consequence of this 
fermentation gas is evolved to a greater or less extent- —per- 
haps to twenty or thirty times the bulk of the food. This 
may take place in the stomach ; and if so, the life of the horse 
is in immediate danger, for the animal has no power to expel 
this dangerous flatus by eructation. 

The symptoms, according to Professor Stewart, are, " The 
horse suddenly slackening his pace, preparing to lie down, or 
falling down, as if he were shot. In the stable he paws the 
ground with his fore-feet, lies down, rolls, starts up all at once, 
and throws himself down again with great violence, looking 
wistfully at his flanks, and making many fruitless attempts to 
void his urine." 

The treatment is considerably different from that of spas- 
modic colic. The spirit of pimento would be here allowed, or 
the turpentine and opium drink ; but if the pain, and espe- 
cially the swelling, do not abate, the gas, which is the cause 
of it, must be got rid of, or the animal is inevitably lost. This 



INFLAMMATION .JF THE BOWELS. 159 

is usually, or almost invariably, a combination of hydrogen 
with some other gas. It has a strong affinity for chlorine. 
Then if some compound of chlorine — the chloride of lime — 
dissolved in water, is administered in the form of a drink, the 
chlorine separates from the lime as soon as it comes in contact 
with the hydrogen, and muriatic gas is formed. This gas, 
having a strong affinity for water, is absorbed by any fluid that 
may be present, and, quitting its gaseous form, either disap- 
pears, or does not retain a thousandth part of its former bulk. 
All this may be very rapidly accomplished, for the fluid is 
quickly conveyed from the mouth to every part of the intes- 
tinal canal. 

Where these two medicines are not at hand, and the danger 
is imminent, the trochar may be used, in order to open a way 
for the escape of the gas. The trochar should be small, but 
longer than that which is used for the cow, and the puncture 
should be made in the middle of the right flank, for there the 
large intestines are most easily leached. It is only when the 
practitioner despairs of otherwis a saving the life of the animal, 
that this operation should be at :empted. Much of the danger 
would be avoided by using a very small trochar, and by with- 
drawing it as soon as the gas has escaped. The wound in 
the intestines will then probably close, from the innate elas- 
ticity of the parts. 

Inflammation of the Bowels. 

There are two varieties r»f this malady. The first is inflam- 
mation of the external coats of the intestines, accompanied by 
considerable, fever, and usually costiveness. The second is that 
of the internal or mucous coat, and almost invariably connect- 
ed with purging. The muscular coat is that which is oftenest 
affected. Inflammation of the external coats of the stomach, 
whether the peritoneal or muscular, or both, is a very fre- 
quent and fatal disease. It speedily runs its course, and it is 
of great consequence that its early symptoms should be known. 

Symptoms. — If the horse has been carefully observed, rest- 
lessness and fever will have been seen to precede the attack. 
In many cases a direct shivering fit will occur ; the mouth 
will be hot, and the nose red. The animal will soon express 
the most dreadful pain by pawing, striking at his belly, look- 
ing wildly at his flanks, groaning, and rolling. The pulse 
will be quickened and small ; the ears and legs cold ; the 
bell) tender, and sometimes hot ; the breathing quickened ; 



160 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

the bowels costive ; and the animal becoming rapidly and fear- 
fully weak. 

The causes of this disease are, first of all and most fre- 
quently, sudden exposure to cold. If a horse that has been 
highly fed, carefully groomed, and kept in a warm stable, is 
hea ted with exercise, and has been during some hours without 
food, and in this state of exhaustion is suffered to drink freely 
of cold water, or is drenched with rain, or have his legs and 
belly washed with cold water, an attack of inflammation of 
the bowels will often follow. An overfed horse, subjected to 
severe and long-continued exertion, if his lungs were previ- 
ously weak, will probably be . attacked by inflammation of 
them ; but if the lungs were sound, the bowels will on the 
following day be the seat of disease. Stones in the intestines 
are an occasional cause of inflammation, and colic neglected 
or wrongly treated will terminate in it. 

Remedies. — The treatment of inflammation of the bowels, 
like that of the lungs, should be prompt and energetic. The 
first and most powerful mean 5 of cure will be bleeding. From 
six to eight or ten quarts of blood, in fact as much as the 
horse can bear, should be abstracted as soon as possible ; and 
the bleeding repeated to the extent of four or five quarts more, 
if the pain is not relieved and the pulse has not become rounder 
and fuller. The speedy weakness that accompanies this dis- 
ease, should not deier from bleeding largely. That weakness 
is the consequence of violent inflammation of these parts ; and 
if that inflammation is subdued by the loss of blood, the weak- 
ness will disappear. The bleeding should be effected on the 
first appearance of the disease, for there is no malady that 
more quickly runs its course. * 

A strong solution of aloes should immediately follow the 
bleeding, but, considering the irritable state of the intestines at 
this period, guarded by opium. This should be quickly fol- 
lowed by back-raking, and injections consisting of warm water, 
or very thin gruel, in which Epsom salts or aloes have been 
dissolved ; and too much fluid can scarcely be thrown up. 

The horse should likewise be encouraged to drink plentifully 
of warm water or thin gruel ; and draughts, each containing a 
couple of drachms of dissolved aloes, with a little opium, 
should be given every six hours, until the bowels are freely 
opened. It will now be prudent to endeavor to excite con- 
siderable external inflammation, as near as possible to the seat 
of internal disease, and therefore the whole of the belly should 
be blistered. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 161 

In a well-marked case of this disease, no time should be 
lost in applying fomentations, but the blister at once resorted 
to. The tincture of Spanish flies, whether made with spirits 
of wine or turpentine, should be thoroughly rubbed in. The 
legs should be well bandaged, in order to restore the circuk' 
tion in them, and thus lessen the flow of blood to the inflamed 
part ; and, for the same reason, the horse should be warmly 
clothed, but the air of the stable or box should be 300I. 

No grain or hay should be allowed during the disease, but 
bran mashes, and green food if it can be procured.. The latter 
will be the best, and may be given withou . the slightest ap- 
prehension of danger. When the horse begins to recover, a 
handful of grain may _ be given two or three times in the day ; 
and, if the weather is warm, he may be turned into a paddock 
for a few hours in the middle of the day. Clysters of gruel 
should be continued for three or four days after the inflamma- 
tion is beginning to subside, and good hand-rubbing applied 
to the legs. 

The second variety of Inflammation of the Bowels 

Affects the internal or mucous coat, and is generally the 
consequence of physic in too great quantity, or of an improper 
kind. The purging is more violent and continues longer than 
was intended ; the animal shows that he is suffering great pain ; 
he frequently looks round at his flanks ; his breathing is la- 
borious, and the pulse is quick and small, and the mouth is 
hot and the legs and ears are warm. 

Remedies. — Unless the purging is excessive, and the pain 
and distress great, the surgeon should hesitate at giving any 
astringent medicine at first ; but he should plentifully adminis- 
ter gruel or thin starch, or arrow-root, by the mouth and by 
clyste", removing all hay and grain, and particularly green 
food. He should thus endeavor to soothe the irritated surface 
of the bowels, while he permits all remains of the purgative to 
be carried off. If, however, twelve hours have passed, and 
the purging and the pain remain undiminished, he should con- 
tinue the gruel, adding to it chalk, catechu, and opium, re 
peated every six hours. As soon as the purging begins to 
subside, the astringent medicine should be lessened in quantity, 
and gradually discontinued. 

Bleeding will rarely be necessary, unless the inflammation 
is very great, and attended by symptoms of general fever. 
The horse should be warmly clothed, and placed in a cow 

14* 



162 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

fortable stable, and his legs should be hand-rubbed and 
bandaged. 

Violent purging, and attended with much inflammation and 
fever, will occur from other causes. Green food will fre- 
quently purge ; and a horse worked hard upon it will sometimes 
scour. 

The remedy is change of diet, or less labor. Young horses 
will often be strongly purged, without any apparent cause. 
Astringents should be used with much caution here. It is 
probably an effort of nature to get rid of. something that offends 
A few doses of gruel will assist in effecting this purpose, and 
the purging will cease without astringent medicine. 

Many horses that are not well ribbed home (having too great 
space between the last rib and the hip-bone) are subject to 
purging, if more than usual exertion is required from them. 
They ate recognised by the term of washy horses. They are 
often free and fleet, but destitute of continuance. They should 
have rather more than the usual allowance of grain, with beans, 
when at work. A cordial ball, with catechu and opium, will 
often be serviceable either before or after a journey. 

Physicking, 

When a horse comes from grass to dry food, or from the 
cool, open air to a heated stable, a dose, or even two doses, 
of physic may be useful to prevent the tendency to inflamma- 
tion, which is the necessary consequence of so sudden and 
great a change. To a horse that is becoming too fat, or has 
surfeit, grease, or mange, or that is out of condition from inac- 
tivity of the digestive organs, a dose of physic is often most 
serviceable. A horse should be carefully prepared for the 
action of physic. Two or three bran mashes given on that or 
the preceding day, are far from sufficient when a horse is about 
to be physicked, whether to promote his condition, or in obe- 
dience to custom. Mashes should be given until the dung 
becomes softened. A less quantity of physic will then suffice, 
and it will more quickly pass through the intestines, and be 
more readily diffused over them. 

Five drachms of aloes, given when the dung has thus been 
softened, will act more effectually and much more safely than 
seven drachms, when the lower intestines are obstructed by 
hardened feces. On the day on which the physic is given, 
the horse should have walking exercise, or may be gently trot- 
ted for a quarter o- an hour twice in the day ; but after the 



PHYSICK NG. 163 

physic begins to work, he should not be moved from his stall. 
Exercise would then produce gripes, irritation, and, possibly 
dangerous inflammation. A little hay may be put into the 
rack. As much mash should be given as the horse will eat, 
and as much water, with the coldness of it taken off, as he 
will drink. If, however, he obstinately refuses to jrink warm 
water, it is better that he should have it cold, than to continue 
without taking any fluid ; but in such case he should not be 
suffered to take more than a quart at a time, with an interval 
of at least an hour between each draught. 

When the purging has ceased, or the physic is set, a mash 
should be given once or twice every day until the next dose 
is taken, between which and the setting of the first, there should 
be an interval of a week. The horse should recover from the 
languor and debility occasioned by the first dose, before he is 
harassed by a second. Eight or ten tolerably copious mo- 
tions, will be perfectly sufficient to answer every good purpose, 
although the groom may not be satisfied unless double the 
quantity are procured. The consequence of too strong purga- 
tion will be, that weakness will hang about the animal for sev- 
eral days or weeks, ana inflammation will often ensue from 
the over-irritation of the intestinal canal. 

Long-continued custom has made aloes the almost invaria- 
ble purgative of the horse, and very properly so ; for there is 
no other at once so sure and so safe. The Barbadoes aloes, 
although sometimes very dear, should alone be used. The 
dose, with a horse properly prepared, will vary from four to 
seven drachms. Custom has assigned the form of a ball to 
physic, but good sense will in due time introduce the solution 
of aloes, as acting more speedily, effectually, and safely. 

The only other purgative on which dependence can be placed 
is the c'roton. The farina or meal of the nut is generally 
used ; but from its acrimony it should be given in the form of 
ball, with linseed meal. The dose varies from a scruple to 
half a drachm. It acts more speedily than the aloes, and 
without the nausea whicl they produce ; but it causes more 
watery stools, and, consequently, more debility. 

Linseed oil is an uncertain but safe purgative, in doses 
from a pound to a. pound and a half. Olive oil is more un- 
certain, but safe ; but castor oil, that mild aperient in the 
human being, is both uncertain and unsafe. Epsom salts are 
inefficacious, except in the immense dose of a pound and a 
half, and then they are not always safe. 



164 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

Worms. 

The long white worm (lumbriciis tern) much resembles the 
common earth-worm, and being from six to ten inches in length, 
inhabits the small intestines. It is a formidable looking ani- 
mal ; and if there are many of them, they may consume more 
than can be spared of the nutritive part of the food, or the 
mucus of the bowels. A tight skin, and rough coat, and 
tucked-up belly, are sometimes connected with their presence. 
' n hey are then, however, voided in large quantities. 

Jxe/.iedies. — A dose of physic will sometimes bring away 
almost incredible quantities of them. Calomel is frequently 
given as a vermifuge. The seldomer this drug is adminis- 
tered to the horse, the better. When the horse can be spared, 
a strong dose of physic is an excellent vermifuge, so far 
as the long round worm is concerned. But a better medicine, 
and not interfering with either the feeding or work of the 
horse, is emetic tartar, with ginger, made into a ball with lin- 
seed meal and treacle, and given every morning, half an hour 
before the horse is fed. 

A smaller, darker colored worm, called the needle-worm, 
^r ascaris, inhabits the larger intestines. Hundreds of them 
sometimes descend into the rectum, and immense quantities 
have been found in the coecum. These are a more serious 
nuisance than the former, for they cause a very troublesome 
irritation about the fundament, which sometimes sadly annoys 
the horse. Their existence can generally be discovered by a 
small portion of mucus, which, hardening, is found adhering 
to the anus. 

Remedies. — Physic will sometimes bring away great numbers 
of these worms ; but when there is much irritation about the 
tail, and much of this mucus, indicating that they have de- 
scended into the rectum, an injection of linseed oil, or of aloes 
dissolved in warm water, will be a more effectual remedy. 
The tape-worm is seldom found in the horse. 

Bots. 

While they inhabit the stomach of the horse, cannot give 
the animal any pain, for they have fastener on the cuticular 
and insensible coat. They cannot stimulate the stomach 
and increase its digestive power, for they are not on the di- 
gestive portion of the stomach. They cannot, by their rough- 
ness, assist the trituration or rubbing down of the food, for 
fto such office is pei formed in that part of the stomach — the 



WIND-GALLS. 165 

food is softened, not rubbed down. They cannot be injurious 
to the horse, for he enjoys the most perfect health when 
the cuticular part of his stomach is filled with them, and 
their presence is not even suspected until they appear at the 
anus. 

The}' cannot be removed by medicine, because they are not 
m that part of the stomach in which medicine is usually con- 
veyed ; and if they were, their mouths are too deeply buried 
in the mucus for any medicine, that can be safely adminis- 
tered, to affect them ; and, last of all, in due course of time 
they detach themselves, and come away. Therefore, the 
wise man will leave them to themselves, or content himself 
with picking them off when they collect under the tail and 
annoy the animal. 

Wind-galls. 

In the neighborhood of the fetlock, there are occasionally 
found considerable enlargements, oftener on the hind-leg than 
the fore one, which are denominated ivind-galls. Between the 
tendons and other parts, and wherever the tendons are exposed 
to pressure or friction, and particularly about their extremities, 
little bags or sacs are placed, containing and suffering to ooze 
slowly from them, a mucous fluid to lubricate the parts. 
From undue pressure, and that most frequently caused by 
violent action and straining of the tendons, or often from some 
predisposition about the horse, these little sacs are injured. 
They take on inflammation, and sometimes become large and 
indurated. There are few horses perfectly free from them. 
When they first appear, and until the inflammation subsides, 
they may be accompanied by some degree of lameness ; but 
otherwise, except when they attain a great size, they do not 
interfere with the action of the animal, or cause any consider- 
able unsoundness. The farriers used to suppose that they 
contained wind — hence their name, wind-galls ; and hence the 
practice of opening them, by which dreadful inflammation 
was often produced, and many a valuable horse destroyed. 

Remedies. — A slight wind-gall will scarcely be subjected to 
treatment ; but if these tumors are numerous and large, and 
seem to impede the motion of the limb, they may be attacked 
first by bandage. The roller should be of flannel, and soft pads 
should be placed on each of the enlargements, and bound 
down tightly upon them. The bandage should also be wetted 
frith warm water, two or three times a day, for half an hour 
each time. The wind-gall wil f i often dimmish or disappeal 



166 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, 

by this treatment, but will too frequently return, wh^n .tkQ 
horse is again hardly worked. 

A blister is a more effectual, but too often temporary remedy. 
Firing is still more certain, if the tumors are sufficiently large 
and annoying to justify our having recourse to measures so 
severe ; for it will not only effect the immediate absorption of 
the fluid, and the reduction of the swelling, but, by contract- 
ing the skin, will act as a permanent bandage, and therefore 
prevent the reappearance of the tumor. The iodine and 
mercurial ointments have occasionally been used with advantage, 
in the proportion of three parts of the former to two of the 
latter. 

Inflammation of the Fetlock. 

The fetlock-joint is a very complicated one, and from the 
stress which is laid on it, and its being the principal seat of 
motion below the knee, it is particularly subject to injury. 
There are not many cases of sprain of the back-sinew, that are 
not accompanied by inflammation of the ligaments of this 
joint ; and numerous supposed cases of sprain higher up, are 
simple affections of the fetlock. It requires a great deal of 
care, and some experience, to distinguish the one from the 
other. The heat about the part, and the point at which the 
horse least endures the pressure of the finger, will be the prin- 
cipal guides. 

Remedy. — Occasionally, by the application of cooling lotions, 
the inflammation may be subdued, but at other times, the 
horse suffers dreadfully, and is unable to stand. A serious 
affection of the fetlock-joint demands prompt treatment. 

Cutting. 

The inside of the fetlock is often bruised by the shoe or 
the hoof of the opposite foot. Many expedients used to be 
tried to remove this ; the inside heel has been raised and low- 
ered, and the outside raised and lowered ; and sometimes one 
operation has succeeded, and sometimes the contrary ; and 
there was no point so involved in obscurity or so destitute of 
principles to guide the practitioner. 

Remedy. — The most successful remedy and that which in 
the great majority of cases supersedes all others, is Mr. Tur- 
ner's shoe, of equal thickness from heel to toe, and having 
but one nail, and that near the toe, on the inside of the shoe ; 
care being taken that the shoe shall not extend beyond the 



SPRAIN OF THE COFFIN-JOINT — RINGBONE. 1G7 

edge of the crust, and that the crust shall be rasped a little 
at the quarters. 

Sprain of the Coffin-Joint. 

The proof of this is when the lameness is sudden, and the 
heat and tenderness are principally felt round the coronet. 

Remedy. — Bleeding at the toe, physic, fomentation, and blis- 
ters, are the usual means adopted. This lameness is not easily 
removed, even by a blister ; and if removed, like sprains of 
the fetlock and of the back-sinews, it is apt to return, and 
finally produce a great deal of disorganization and mischief in 
the foot. Sprain of the coffin -joint sometimes becomes a very 
serious affair. Not being always attended by any external 
swelling, and being detected only by heat round the coronet 
the seat of the lameness is often overlooked by the groom ana 
the farrier ; and the disease is suffered to become confirmed 
before its nature is discovered. 

Ringbone. 

This is a deposite of bony matter in one of the pasterns, 
and usually near the joint. It rapidly spreads, and involves 
not only the pastern-bones, but the cartilages of the foot, and 
spreading around the pasterns and cartilages, thus derives its 
name. When the first deposite is on the lower pastern, and 
on both sides of it, and produced by violent inflammation of 
ihe ligaments of the joints, it is recognised by a rllgtit en- 
largement, or bony tumor on each side of the foot, and just 
above the coronet. 

Horses with short upright joints, and with small feet and 
high action, are oftenest, as may be supposed, the subjects of 
this disease, which is the consequence either of concussion or 
sprain of the pastern-joints. It is also more frequent in the 
hind foot than the fore, because, from the violent action of the 
hind legs in propelling the horse forward, the pasterns are 
more subject to ligamentary injury behind than before ; yet 
the lameness is not so great there, because the disease is con- 
fined principally to the ligaments, and the bones have not beei 
injured by concussion ; while, from the position of the fore 
limbs, there will generally be in them injury of the bones to 
be added to that of the ligaments. 

Jiemedy. — In its early stage, and when recognised only by 
a bony enlargement on both sides of the pastern -joint, or in 
■ome few cases-' on one side only, tke lameness is not very coa- 



168 DC AIESTIC ANIMALS. 

siderable, and it is not impossible to remove the disease by 
active blistering, or by the application of the cautery ; but 
there is so much wear and tear in this part of the animal, that 
the inflammation and the disposition to the formation of bone 
rapidly spread. The pasterns first become connected together 
by bone instead of ligament, and thence results what is called 
an anchylosed or fixed joint. From this joint the disease pro- 
ceeds to the cartilages of the foot, and to the union between 
the lower pastern, and the coffin and navicular bones. The 
motion of these parts likewise is impeded or lost, and the 
whole of the foot become^ one mass of spongy bone. 

Enlargement of the Hock. 

First, there is inflammation, or sprain of the hock-joint gener- 
ally, arising from sudden violent concussion, by some check at 
speed, or over-weight, and attended with enlargement of the 
whole joint, and great tenderness and lameness. 

Remedy. — This, however, like all' other diffused inflamma- 
tions, is not so untractable as an intense one of a more circum- 
scribed nature, and by rest and fomentation, or, perchance, 
firing, the limb recovers its action, and the horse becomes fit 
for ordinary work. The swelling, however, does not always 
subside. Enlargement, spread over the whole of the hock- 
joint, remains. 

A horse with an enlarged hock must always be regarded 
with sv^nicion. In truth, he is unsound. The parts, altered 
in structure, must be to a certain degree weakened. The ani- 
mal may discharge his usual work during a long peri©d, with- 
out return of lameness ; but if one of those emergencies should 
occur when all his energies require to be exerted, the disor- 
ganized and weakened part will fail. He may be ridden or 
driven moderately for many a year without inconvenience, yet 
one extra hard day's work may lame him forever. 

Curb. 

There are often injuries of particular parts of the hock- 
joint. Curb is an affection of this kind. It is an enlargement 
at the back of the hock, three or four inches below its point. 
It is either a strain of the ring-Ike ligament which binds the 
tendons in their place, or of the sheath of the tendons ; 
oftener, however, of the ligament than of the sheath. Any 
sudden action of the limb of more than usual violence may 
produce it, and therefore horses are found to throw out curbs 



CURBS. 1G9 

after a hardly-contested race, an extraordinary leap, a severe 
gallop over heavy ground, or a sudden check in the gallop. 

Young horses are particularly liable to it, and horses that 
are cow-hocked, whose hocks and legs resemble those of the- 
cow, the hocks being turned inwards, and legs forming a con- 
siderable angle outwards. This is intelligible enough ; for in 
hocks so formed, the annular ligament must be continually on 
the stretch, in order to confine the tendon. Curbs are gen- 
erally accompanied by considerable lameness at their first ap- 
pearance, but the swelling is not always great. They are best 
detected by observing the leg sidewise. 

Remedies. — The first object in attempting the cure, is to 
abate inflammation, and this will be most readily accomplished 
by cold evaporating lotions, frequently applied to the part. 
Equal portions of spirit of wine, water, and vinegar, will af- 
ford an excellent application. It will be almost impossible to 
keep a bandage on. If the heat and lameness are considera- 
ble, it will be prudent to give a dose of physic, and to bleed 
from the subcutaneous vein, wliose course is near it; and 
whether the injury is of the annular ligament, or the sheath 
of the tendon, more active means will be necessary to perfect 
a cure. 

Either a liquid blister should be rubbed on the part, con- 
sisting of a vinus or turpentine tincture of cantharides, and 
this daily applied until some considerable swelling takes 
place ; or, what is the preferable plan, the hair should be cut 
off, and the part blistered as soon as the heat has been sub- 
dued. The blister should be repeated, until the swelling has 
disappeared, and the horse goes sound. 

In severe cases it may be necessary to fire ; but a fair trial, 
however, should be given to milder measures. If the iron is 
used, it should be applied in straight lines. 

There are few lamenesses in which absolute and long-con- 
tinued rest is more requisite. It leaves the parts materially 
weakened, and, if the horse is soon put to work again, the 
lameness will frequently return. No horse that has had curbs, 
should be put even to ordinary work in less than a month 
after the apparent cure ; and, even then he should very gradu- 
ally resume his former habits. 

A horse with a curb, is manifestly unsound, or generally 
condemned as unsound. Curb is also an hereditary complaint ; 
and therefore a horse that has once suffered from it, should 
always be regarded with suspicion, especially if either of llie 
parents have exhibited it. 

15 



170 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

Bone Spavin, 

This is an affection of the bones of the hock-joint. Spav- 
ined horses are generally capable of slow work. They are 
equal to the greater part of the work of the farm, and there- 
fore they should not always be rejected by the small farmer, 
as they may generally be procured at a small price. These 
horses are not only capable of agricultural work, but they 
generally improve under it. The lameness in some degree 
abates, and even the bony tumor to a certain degree lessens. 
There is sufficient moderate motion and friction, of the limb to 
rouse the absorbents to action, and cause them to take up a 
portion of the bony matter thrown out, but not enough to re- 
new or prolong inflammation. It cannot be said that the 
plow affords a cure for spavin, but the spavined horse often 
materially improves while working at it. For fast work, and 
for work that must be regularly performed, spavined horses 
are not well calculated ; for this lameness behind produces 
great difficulty in rising, and -the consciousness that he will 
not be able to rise without painful effort, occasionally prevents 
the horse from lying down at all ; and the animal that cannot 
rest well, cannot long travel far or fast. 

Remedies. — The treatment of spavin is simple enough, but 
far from being always effectual. The owner of the horse will 
neither consult his own interest, nor the dictates of humanity, 
if he suffers the chisel and mallet, or the gimlet, or the point- 
ed iron, or arsenic to be used ; yet measures of considerable 
severity must be resorted to. Repeated blisters will usually 
cause either the absorption of the bony deposite, or the abate- 
ment or removal of the inflammation of the ligaments, or, as 
a last resource, the heated iron may be applied. 

Swelled Legs. 

The fore-legs, but oftener the hind ones, and especially in 
coarse horses, are sometimes subject to considerable enlarge- 
ment. Occasionally, when the horse does not seem to labor 
under any other disease, and sometimes from an apparent 
shifting of disease from other parts, the hind legs suddenly 
swell to an enormous degree from the hock, and almost from 
the stifle to the fetlock, attended by a greater or less degree 
of heat, and tenderness of the skin, and sometimes excessive 
and very peculiar lameness. The pulse likewise becomes quick 
and hara, and the hor3e evidently labors under considerable 



GREASE. 171 

fever. It is acute inflammation of the cellular substance of 
the legs, and that most sudden in its attack, and most violent 
in its degree, and therefore attended by the effusion of a con- 
siderable quantity of fluid into the cellular membrane. It oc- 
curs in young horses, and in those which are over-fed and 
little exercised. 

Remedies. — Fomentation, diuretics, or purgatives, or, if 
there is much' fever, a moderate bleeding, will often relieve the 
distention almost as suddenly as it appeared. Mild cases will 
generally yield to their influence ; but, if the ^animal has been 
neglected, the treatment must be decisive. If the horse is in 
high condition, these should be preceded or accompanied by 
bleeding ; but if there are any symptoms of debility, bleeding 
would only increase the want of tone in the vessels. 

Horses taken from grass and brought into close stables, 
very speedily have swelled legs, because the difference of food 
and increase of nutriment rapidly increase the quantity of 
the circulating fluid, while the want of exercise takes away 
the means by which it might be got rid of. The remedy here 
is sufficiently plain. 

Swelled legs, however, may proceed from general debility. 
They may be the consequence of starvation, or disease that 
has considerably weakened the animal ; and these parts, being 
farthest from the centre of circulation, are the first to show 
the loss of power by the accumulation of fluid in them. Here 
the means of cure would be to increase the general strength, 
with which the extremities would sympathize. Mild diuretics 
and tonics would therefore be evidently indicated. 

Horses in the spring and fall are subject to swelled legs. 
The powers of the constitution ^re pyncipally employed in 
providing a new coat for the animal, and the extremities have 
not their share of vital influence. Mingled cordials and diu- 
retics are indicated here ; the diuretic to lessen the quantity 
of the circulating fluid, and the cordial to invigorate the, 
frame. 

Grease. 

Swelled legs, although distinct from grease, is a disease that 
is apt to degenerate into it. Grease is a specific inflammation 
of the skin of the heels, sometimes of the fore-feet, but oftenei 
of the hinder ones. Bad stable management is the true cause 
of it. Grease is a local complaint. The heel should be well 
but gently washed with soap and water, arid as much of the 



172 DOMESTIC ANIM - LS. 

scurf detached as is easily removable. An ointment should 
be applied, to supple, cool, and heal the part. 

When cracks appear, the mode of treatment will depend on 
their extent »and depth. If the cracks are deep, with an 
ichorous discharge and considerable lameness, it will be neces- 
sary to poultice the heel. A poultice of linseed meal will be 
generally effective, unless the discharge is thin and offensive, 
when an ounce of finely-powdered charcoal should be mixed 
with the linseed meal ; or a poultice of carrots, boiled soft 
and mashed. After the chaps or cracks have healed, the legs 
will sometimes continue gorged and swelled. A flannel band- 
age, evenly applied over the whole of the swelled part, will 
be very serviceable ; or should the season admit of it, a run 
at grass, particularly spring grass, should be allowed. 

The feeding should likewise vary with the case, but with 
these rules, which admit of no exception ; that green food 
should be given, and more especially carrots, when they are 
not too expensive ; and mashes, if the horse will eat them ; 
and never the full allowance of grain. 

Walking exercise should be resorted to as soon as the horse 
is able to bear it, and this by degrees may be increased to a 
gentle trot. 

From bad stable-management at first, and neglect during 
the disease, a jet worse kind of grease occasionally appears. 
The ulceration extends over the skin of the heel and the fet- 
lock, and a fungus springs from the surface of both, highly 
sensible, bleeding at the slightest touch, and interspersed with 
6cabs. By degrees portions of the fungus begin to be covered 
with a horny substance, protruding in the form of knobs, and 
collected together in bunches. These are known by the name 
of grcpes. A foetid and very peculiar exudation, proceeds 
from nearly the whole of the unnatural substance. The 
horse evidently suffers much, and is gradually worn down by 
the discharge. The assistance of a veterinary surgeon is here 
indispensable. 

Some horses are more subject to grease than others, par- 
ticularly draught-horses, both heavy and light, but particularly 
the former, and if they have no degree of blood in them. It 
was the experience of this, which partly contributed to the 
gradual change of coach and other draught-horses to those of 
a lighter breed. In the great majority of cases, grease arises 
from mismanagement and neglect. 

Every thing that has a tendency to excite inflammation in 
the skin of the heel is a cause of grease. Therefore want 



JUTTING THE HAIR FROM THE HEELS SETONS. 173 

of exercise is a frequent source of this disease. When high 
feeding is added to irregular or deficient exercise, the disease 
is evidently still more . likely to be produced. Want of clean- 
liness in the stable is a fruitful source of grease. When the 
heels are imbedded in filth, they are weakened by the con- 
stant moisture surrounding them. The absurd practice of 
washing the feet and legs of horses when they come from 
their work, and either carelessly sponging them down after 
wards, or leaving them to dry as they may, is, however, the 
most common origin of grease. 

When the horse is warmed by his work, and the heels share 
in the warmth, the momentary cold of washing may not be 
injurious, if the animal is immediately rubbed dry ; yet even 
this would be better avoided ; but to wash out the heels, and 
then leave them partially dry or perfectly wet, and suffering 
from the extreme cold that is produced by evaporation from a 
moist and wet surface, is the most absurd, dangerous, and in- 
jurious practice that can be imagined. It is worse, when the 
post-horse or the plow-horse is plunged up to his belly in the 
river or pond immediately after his work. 

Cutting the Hair from Hie Heels. 

Custom has very properly retained the hair on our farm- 
horses. Nature would not have given it had it not been use- 
ful. It guards the heel from being injured by the inequalities 
of the plowed field, and prevents the dirt, 'in which the 
heels are constantly enveloped, from reaching, and caking on, 
and irritating the skin. When the horse is carefully tended 
after his work is over, and his legs quickly and completely 
dried, the less hair he has about them the better, for then both 
the skin and the hair can be made perfectly dry before evapo- 
ration begins, or proceeds so far as to deprive the legs of their 
heat. Grease is the child of negligence and mismanagement. 

Setons 

Are pieces of tape or cord, passed, by means of an instru- 
ment resembling a large needle, either through abscesses, or 
the base of ulcers with deep sinuses, or between the skin and 
the muscular or other substances beneath. They are re- 
tained there by the ends being tied together, or by a knot at 
each end. The tape is moved in the wound twice or thrice in. 
the day, and occasionally wetted with spirits of turpentine, or 
some acrid fluid, in order to increase the inflammation which 

15* 



174 Domestic animals. 

it produces, or the discharge which is intended to be estab- 
lished. 

In abscesses, such as occur in the withers or the poll, and 
when passed from the summit to the very bottom of the swell- 
ing, i etons are highly useful by discharging the purulent fluid, 
and suffering any fresh quantity of it that may be secreted to 
flow out ; and, by the degree of inflammation which they ex- 
cite on the interior of the tumor, stimulating it to throw out 
healthy granulations, which gradually occupy and fill the hol- 
low. In deep fistulous wounds they are indispensable, for ex- 
cept some channel is made through which the matter may flow 
from the bottom of the wound, it will continue to penetrate 
deeper into the part, and the healing process will never be ac- 
complished. Oh these accounts, a seton passing through the base 
of the ulcer in poll-evil and fistulous withers is so beneficial. 

Setons are sometimes useful by promoting a discharge in the 
neighborhood of an inflamed part, and thus diverting and car- 
rying away a portion of the fluids which distend or overload 
the vessels of that part ; thus, a seton is placed with consid- 
erable advantage in the cheek, when the eyes are much in- 
flamed." — ( Youatt.) 

Founder, 

Or inflammation of the foot, arises from various causes ; ex 
cessive exertion, great heat, and particularly when followed by 
drinking cold water, or overloading the stomach in any way, 
sudden transition from great cold to excessive heat, and change 
of inflammation from some other part. 

Remedies. — When the attack is severe and confined to the 
fore-feet, Youatt recommends removing the shoe and paring 
the hoof as much as possible, taking four quarts of blood from 
each toe, placing the feet in warm water, and afterwards ap- 
plying soft poultices of linseed meal to the whole foot and 
pastern. If this is ineffectual, take three quarts of blood from 
each foot the succeeding day. It may then be necessary to 
blister the foot and coronet. The animal should be kept on 
green food or light mashes, and allowed to run on grass with- 
out labor. An effectual cure has followed from taking off 
the shoe, and applying lard, raised to the boiling point, to 
every part of the foot. 

Poison 

From weeds, sometimes gives to horses ulcerated tongues 
and Ups, and swollen legs and sheath. If there be much in- 



EPIDEMICS AMONG HORSES, ETC 175 

flammation, bleeding should be resorted to, then give daily- 
bran mashes, with Glauber salts in doses of | to l£ pounds, 
according to the size of the horse, with half a teaspoonful of 
saltpetre. Washing the ulcerated parts with warm soap- 
suds, copperas, and sugar-of-lead may follow. 

Epidemics among Horses, 

Sometimes occur, producing great mortality. One of these 
was prevalent in the neighborhood of New York, in 1846, 
termed a malarious congestive fever, staggers, or apoplexy, 
which destroyed many valuable animals. Tt occurred during 
the heat of summer, and was principally confined to such as 
were at pasture. By many.it was attiibuted to excessive heat 
and exposure at night. The animals that were opened, ap- 
peared sound in all respects excepting the brain, which exhib- 
ited one mass of clotted blood. 

The remedy found to be the most effectual, consisted in ta- 
king about one quart of blood from the head, swathing it with 
cloths saturated with cold water, and giving two drachms daily 
of calomel. The horse should be kept in a cool stable. 

A similar disease in Spain is cured by copious bleeding, and 
swathing the head in blankets constantly wet with hot water. 

Inflammation of tlie Eyes. 

Shut up in a dark stable', and feed on fresh-cut grass and 
bran mashes. Bleed freely from the mouth, and 'give 1 \ lbs. 
Glauber salts, 2 drachms nitre, and 15 grains tartarized antimo- 
ny, dissolved in a bucket of water, which the animal will drink 
when thirsty. This to be repeated daily till purging is effect- 
ed. If it fails, bleed from the large veins just below the eye, 
taking 15 to 20 ounces of blood. — (Dr. Campbell.) 

The Sting of Hornets, 

Bees, or snakes, may be relieved by immediate external ap- 
plication of strong spirits of hartshorn : salt and vinegar are 
also good. 

For Sprains, 

Take a mixture of one ounce sweet oil, four ounces spirits 
of hartshorn, half an ounce oil of thyme, and rub with it fre- 
quently. The remedies mentioned below are also effectual 
for sprains. 



176 JOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



For a Bruise or Blow. 

Apply hot water a long time with wet cloths. Beef brine 
is an excellent lotion for both sprains and bruises. A veteran 
among horses, claims, that it will almost set a joint or heal a 
fracture. Wormwood or tansy lotions are also good. 

Fistula. 

This is frequently cured by repeated applications of salt. 

Wounds 

Should be washed twice a day with clean, soft water, or 
with a little Castile soap added,. and then rub with whale-oil 
This answers for all seasons, keeps off flies, restores the hair, 
and of the original color. 

Galls, 

Or wounds on the back from the saddle, are most effectually 
healed by white-lead, moistened with sweet-oil or milk. The 
saddle ought always to fit easily and be well padded, and it 
should be taken off and the animal's back washed at even? 
baiting. 

Shoeing. 

This is an important operation, and should never be at- 
tempted but under the supervision of an experienced person ; 
nor ought the shoes to remain so long as to produce contrac- 
tion of the hoof, which is followed by lameness and corns. 
They should be reset as often as every five or six weeks. 

Contraction of the Foot. 

This is also caused by standing on the dry stable for some 
days. In this case, the hoof should be stopped with fresh 
cow-manure and clay, or with a thick felt, soaked in water, 
and cut to suit the foot. This is also a good application over 
night, for horses that have accomplished a hard day's work 
on a dry road. 

Litter. 

This is not objectionable to the feet, if clean anf ot too 
damp. Some suppose this the cause of contraction, but it is 
the reverse. It is besides ?f great benefit when shook out for 



CORNS. 177 

a bed, by inducing the horse to rest himself. He is thus en- 
abled to do more work, and with a less expenditure of food. 

Corns. 

In the angle between the bars and the quarters, the horn 
of the sole has sometimes a red appearance, and is more 
spongy and softer than at any other part. The horse flinches ' 
when this portion of the horn is pressed upon, and occasional 
or permanent lameness is produced. This disease of the foot 
is termed corns ; bearing this resemblance to the corn of the 
human being, that it is produced by pressure, and is a cause 
of lameness. When corns are neglected, so much inflamma- 
tion is produced in that part of the sensible sole, that suppu- 
ration follows, and to that, quittor succeeds, and the matter 
either undermines the horny sole, or is discharged at the 
coronet. 

Remedies. — The cure of old corns is difficult ; for as all 
shoeing has some tendency to produce pressure here, the 
habit of throwing out this diseased horn is difficult to get rid 
of when once contracted ; recent corns, however, will yield to 
good shoeing. The first thing to be done is well to pare out 
the angle between the crust and the bars. Two objects are 
answered by this ; the extent of the disease will be ascertained, 
and one cause of it removed. A very small drawing-knife 
must be used for this purpose. The corn must be pared out 
to the very bottom, taking care not to wound the sole. It 
may then be discovered whether there is any effusion of blood 
or matter underneath. If this is suspected, an opening must 
be made through the horn, the matter evacuated, the separated 
horn taken away, the course and extent of the sinuses explored, 
and introduce into them a saturated solution of sulphate of zinc, 
by means of a small syringe. Place over this dressing the 
common cataplasm, or the turpentine ointment, and renew the 
application every twenty-four hours. Three or four such ap- 
plications complete a cure. 

Should there be no collection of fluid, the butyr of antimony 
should be applied over the whole extent of the corn, after the 
horn has been thinned as closely as possible. The object of 
this is to stimulate the sole to throw out more healthy horn. 
In bad cases, a bar-shoe may be put on, so chambered that 
there shall be no pressure on the diseased part. This may be 
worn for one or two shoeings, but not constantly, for there are 
few frogs that would bear the 'constant pressure of the bar- 



178 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

shoe ; and the want of pressure on the heel, generally occa- 
sioned by their use, would produce a softened and bulbous 
state of the heels, that would of itself be an inevitable source 
of lameness. Turning out to grass, after the horn is a little 
grown, first with a bar-shoe, and afterwards with the shoe 
fettered on one side, or with tips, will often be serviceable. A 
horse that has once had corns to any considerable extent 
should, at every shoeing, have the seat of corn well pared out, 
and the butyr of antimony applied. 

An Over-reach 

Is a tread upon the heel of the coronet of the fore foot, by 
the shoe of the corresponding hind foot, and either inflicted by 
the toe, or by the inner edge of the inside of the shoe. 

The preventive treatment is the bevelling, or rounding off of 
the inside edge or rim of the hind shoes. 

The cure is the cutting away of the loose parts, the applica- 
tion of Friar's balsam, and protection from the dirt. 

Forging, or Clicking, 

" Is a singular species of over-reaching. The horse, in the 
act of trotting, strikes the toes of the hind shoes against the 
fore one. This noise of the clicking is unpleasant, and the 
trick or habit is not altogether free from danger. It is most 
frequent in young horses, and is attributable to too great ac- 
tivity, or length of stride in the hind legs. 

Remedies. — The rider may do something by keeping the 
head of the horse well up ; but the smith may effect more by 
making the hind shoes of clicking horses short in the toe, and 
having the web broad. When they are too long, they are apt 
to be torn off; when too narrow, the hind foot may bruise 
the sole of the fore one, or may be locked fast between the 
branches of the fore shoe." — Youatt. 

The Bearing Rein 

Is a matter of much controversy ; some claiming that it 
should be entirely abolished, while others as strenuously con- 
tend for its almost universal use. Nimrod, who is deemed 
perfectly competent authority, insists on its use with fast road- 
sters and coach-horses. With team-horses, it may generally 
be dispensed with, and always should be in ascending hills, 
as it materially diminishes the r capacity for exertion. The 



THE BEARING REIN. 



179 



fault in its use is its excessive tightness, and when standing, 
the ho-se ousjht nevei to be tormented with it. 




Saf ty Rein illustrated. 

Directions for use of Safety Rein. — In putting on the rein 
for a gig, keep the buckle to the left hand, or near side ; that 
will place the loop, Avhich is on the middle of the rein, below 
the hook or head of the bridle, which prevents it from being 
thrown out by the motion of the horse's head. For a pair of 
horses, keep the two short chapes outmost, and the loops on the 
middle downward. For saddle, keep the buckle to the left hand. 

When the rein is used either for running, rearing, kicking, 
or going backward, it should be applied suddenly with a strong 
arm, keeping up the pressure until the horse is still ; it should 
then be relieved suddenly, at the same time motioning the horse 
to go on. .If he is only a runaway he will obey it at once, 
such horses being generally of a willing, good temper. After 
the horse has been a few times firmly gripped with it, use it 
occasionally, instead of the bit-rein, to stop him on ordinary 
occasions ; this will remind the horse of his subjection, and will 
accustom the rider or driver to the ready and accurate use of 
it in case of an emergency. 

The, Bit 
Is a frequent cause of injury to the mouth of the horse* 



180 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



fretting and teasing him, and in many cases inducing perma- 
nent injury and viciousness. It should never be made annoy- 
ing to the horse beyond the absolute necessity for his proper 
restraint. 

Ail Unruly Stud may be controlled 

By passing the rein from the ring on the off-side over the 
head and through the left ring. This gives a purchase to the 
groom which the horse cannot resist. 

Blinds 

Have for a long time been fashionable, but in few cases 
are necessary, while in nearly ail they are decidedly injurious. 



Fig. 31 



The Crib Biter. 




This small instrument is 
made entirely of iron, and 
riveted firmly to the head-stall. 
It answers the threefold pur- 
pose, to prevent biting, crib- 
biting, and wind-sucking. All 
of the foregoing are bad hab- 
its for horses, for which there 
is no effectual cure, but in 
adopting the use of the above 
implement. 



The Crib Biter. 



The Stable 



Is an important matter connected with the proper manage- 
ment of horses. This should be as much as possible of a 
uniform temperature, cool in summer, warm in winter, and al- 
ways clean, dry, and well- ventilated. But no air must be 
allowed to blow directly upon the animal. The horse is a na- 
tive of a warm climate, and ought to be well protected against 
cold. The stable should be neither too light nor too dark, nor 
must the light ever be admitted before the eye of the horse. 
For judicious and extended arrangement of stables, and man- 
agement of horses, the inquiring reader is referred to Stewart* i 
Stable Economy. 



THE ASS. 181 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE ASS, THE MULE, AND THE COMPARATIVE IABO*, 
OF WORKING ANIMALS. 



THE ASS 

Is a native of Arabia, Persia, and the central parts of Asia 
and Africa. Like the horse, he goes in troops and displays 
great natural sagacity, activity, and courage. Job says, " He 
scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth the cry- 
ing of the driver." Like the horse, too, he has from time im- 
memorial been tamed, and become the faithful servant of man ; 
but unlike him, he is subject to few maladies, is hardy and 
enduring, and subsists and even thrives on coarse and scanty 
forage. Thus Job says of his natural haunts, " Whose house 
t have made the wilderness, and the barren land his dwellings ; 
„ne range of the mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth 
after every green thing." Xenophon, in his Anabasis, a thou- 
sand years later, says of one of the Asiatic deserts through 
which he passed with the army of Cyrus, " that it was full of 
wormwood ; if any other kinds of shrubs or reeds grew there, 
they had all an aromatic smell ; but no trees appeared. Of 
wild creatures, the most numerous are wild asses, which our 
horses sometimes chased ; but the wild asses exceeded them 
much in speed." 

Varieties. 

The different breeds of asses are supposed to be quite 
as numerous as those of the horse. Four distinct races are 
mentioned in the earliest scriptures. In modern times we find 
a similar diversity. There are two kinds in Persia, the largest 
a slow, heavy brute, used only for burdens ; the other smallei 
and more spirited, and used for the saddle. In Egypt, a con- 
siderable though less marked difference exists, those near the 
Delta being inferior to those which are bred in Upper Egypt 
and Nubia. In Spain, a difference in size and spirit prevails, 
greater even than in Persia. 

10 



182 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

The Zebra is nearly allied in size, shape, and character to 
the wild ass, but his untameable ferocity has hitherto effectually 
bid defiance, alike to the scourges and caresses, the frowns and 
the favors of man. 

Arabia produces some of the most spirited and hardy asses, 
but their size, like that of their horses, is too small for pur- 
poses of the greatest utility. The Maltese Jack is by American 
breeders deemed the choicest animal from which to propagate. 
He is evidently of Arabian descent, and possesses all the good 
qualities of his ancestry, with considerable additional size. 

We have several varieties, all of which are imported, as 
there are no natives of the Western Continent. The early im- 
portations were principally made from the Azores, and Cape 
de Verd Islands, and were mostly of an inferior character. A 
superior Maltese Jack was presented to Gen. Washington, in 
1787, by La Fayette, and is believed to be the first ever sent 
to this country. Mr. Custis describes him as of moderate 
size, clean-limbed, possessing great activity, the fire and 
ferocity of a tiger, of a dark brown* and nearly black, with white 
belly and muzzle, and manageable only by one groom, nor 
then safely. He lived to a great age. His mules were all 
active, spirited, and serviceable, and when from stout mares, 
attained considerable size. 

A Spanish Jack and Jennet were also presented to Washing- 
ton about the same time, by the King of Spain. The first is 
characterized by the same authority, as a huge, ill-shapen 
animal, nearly 16 hands high, very large head, clumsy limbs, 
and to all appearance little calculated for active service ; he 
was of a gray color, and not much valued for his mules, 
which were unwieldy and dull. From the Maltese Jack 
and Spanish Jennet, which approach the size of the large 
Spanish Jack, was bred a valuable animal, Compound, which 
partook of all the good qualities of the sire, with the weight 
of the dam. From him descended many of the best mules of 
Mount Vernon. 

Many other valuable importations followed these animals, 
and it is believed we have for many years had as fine speci- 
mens of the ass as the world affords. 

Jennets, or she-asses, are used among us principally for 
breeding Jacks, and of course are not numerous. They are 
sometimes, though seldom, bred to the horse. It is difficult 
to induce the horse to notice them, and the produce, which is 
called a hinny, is less hardy and useful than the mule. The 
milk of the she-ass is lighter and more digestible than that 



THE MULE. 183 

of any other animal, and in former times was in great request 
''or invalids. 

The ass is occasionally used in the cart, or as a beast of 
burden. Such as are employed for these purposes are 
generally of an inferior kind, and are only used for the lightest 
work. They may sometimes be seen among the fishmongers 
and small vegetable dealers about our city markets, but little 
larger than a Newfoundland dog or Shetland pony, trundling 
along a light cart with a wheelbarrow load. In ancient times 
they have been, and in foreign countries — even at the present 
time, they are extensively used. But the most enlightened of 
the moderns have adopted the mule as the proper and almost 
exclusive substitute for the ass ; and it would show a still 
greater intelligence and economy, if it much more extensively 
took the place of the horse. 



THE MULE 

Is the hybrid produced by the ass with the mare. How 
early this animal was bred, is uncertain, but we know he was 
in high repute in the reign of David, near 3,000 years ago, for 
he was rode by Absalom, the favorite prince of Israel, on the 
field of battle. They have from time immemorial been bred 
in various parts of the East, on the borders of the Mediterra- 
nean, and throughout Spain, Portugal, and other countries, 
many of them being of splendid appearance and of fine quali- 
ties. In these countries, they are frequently used by the 
grandees and nobles, and indeed by royalty itself; and how- 
ever much they may be undervalued elsewhere, when they 
are finely bred and trained, and richly caparisoned, they ex- 
hibit a stateliness and bearing, that few of the highest bred 
horses can match. 



Breeding Mules in the United States, 

Was commenced with much spirit in some of the New 
England states, soon after the American revolution. The 
object was not to breed them for their own use, but only as 
an article of commerce. They were at first shipped exclusively 
to the West Indies ; and afterwards to the South and West, 
for employment in the various work of the plantation. In- 
different animals, both as sires and dams, were used at first, 
as any thing which bose the name of mule, then commanded a 



i84 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

ready sale. The progeny were necessarily inferior brutes, and 
viewed with almost universal derision ; and being considered 
the type of their race, a prejudice was excited against them, 
which more than half a century has not been sufficient to 
dispel. 

Among a few thinking men at the North, they have been 
adopted and made highly useful in the various duties of the 
farm. They have been largely introduced at the South and 
West, but principally in the slave states, where the manage- 
ment of the team devolves upon the ignorant and heedless. 
It is there, and in other and hotter climates, that the superior 
merits of the mule over the horse as a laboring animal, are 
peculiarly manifest. In many instances they are indifferently 
fed, hardly worked, and greatly neglected by their drivers ; 
yet they sustain themselves for years, in defiance of usage that 
would annihilate two generations of horses. Their powers 
have been largely increased and their merits improved, by the 
introduction of some of the best Maltese and Spanish Jacks, 
and the use of large, blood mares. The propriety of this 
course is seen in the value of the product ; for while some of 
the inferior are unsaleable at $50, others of the same age, and 
reared under the same circumstances of keep and condition, 
could not be purchased for $150. 

The Breeding, Rearing, and Management of Mules 

Is similar to that of colts. They will be found, equally with 
horses, to repay generous keep and attention, by their in- 
creased and rapid growth. But they should not be pampered 
by high feed, as it not only has a tendency to produce disease, 
but to form habits of fastidiousness, which materially lessens 
their economical feeding in after life. The diseases to which 
mules are subjected, (which are always few, and if properly 
managed will seldom or ever occur,) require a treatment like 
that of horses. 

The breeding from mules has sometimes been questioned, 
but it has been demonstrated in several instances. Neither 
the sexual development nor propensities are wanting, but they 
are seldom indulged with effect. Mr. Kilby, of Virginia, states 
in the Farmer's Register, that a mare mule brought two colts 
from a young horse, which they closely resembled. The first 
was a male, and died, apparently with staggers, which no 
treatment could arrest, at six months old. The second was a 
female, 16 months younger thai: the first, marked like the 



ADVANTAGES OF MULE OVER HORSE . VBOR. 185 

3ire, being jet-black, excepting a white foot and star in the 
forehead, and died at a year old, after two days' illness, not- 
withstanding the utmost care was bestowed upon it. Suc- 
cessful propagation of this hybrid, however, beyond the first 
cross, seems to be incompatible with the fixed laws of nature. 
With a view of encouraging the substitution of mules for 
a part of the horses now employed in American husbandry, 
we give the following testimony from experienced individuals, 
of great intelligence and careful observation. 



ADVANTAGES OF MULE OVER HORSE LABOR. 

The official report of an agricultural committee in South 
Carolina, in 1824, says : — " The annual expense of keeping a 
horse is equal to his value. A horse at four years old would 
not often bring more than his cost. Two mules can be raised 
at less expense than one horse. The mule is fit for service 
earlier, and if of sufficient size, will perform as much labor as 
the horse ; and if attended to when first put to work, his gait 
and habits may be formed to suit the owner." 

Mr. Pomeroy, who used them near Boston for 30 years, 
and to such an extent as to have had more labor performed 
by them probably than any person in New England, says : — 
"I am convinced the small breed of mules will consume less 
in proportion to the labor they are capable of performing than 
the larger race, but I shall confine myself to the latter in my 
comparison, such as stand 14| to 16 hands, and are capable 
of performing any work a horse is usually put to. From re- 
peated experiments, I have found that three mules of this 
description, which were constantly at work, consumed about 
the same quantity of hay, and only one-fourth the provender, 
which was given to two middling-size coach-horses, only 
moderately worked. I am satisfied a large-sized mule will not 
consume more than three-fifths to two-thirds the food to keep 
him in good order, that will be necessary for a horse perform- 
ing the same labor. The expense of shoeing a mule the year 
round, does not exceed one-third that of the horse, his hoofs 
being harder, more horny, and so slow in their growth, that 
shoes require no removal, and hold on till worn out ; and the 
wear from the lightness of the animal is much less. 

Mules have been lost by feeding on cut straw and corn 
meal ; in no other instance have I known disease in them, ex- 
cept by inflammation of the intestines, caused by the grossest 

16* 



186 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

exposure to cold and wet, and excessive drinking cold water, 
after severe labor, and while in a high state of perspira- 
tion. It is not improbable a farmer may work the same team 
of mules for twenty years, without having a farrier's bill pre- 
sented to him. 

In my experience of thirty years, I have never found but 
one mule inclined to be vicious, and he might have been easily 
subdued while young. I have always found them truer pullers 
and quicker travellers, with a load, than horses. Their vision 
and hearing are much more accurate. I have used them in 
my family carriage, in a <^ig, and under the saddle ; and have 
never known one to start or run from any object or noise, a 
fault in the horse, that continually causes the maiming and 
death of numerous human beings. 

The mule is more steady in his draught, and less likely to 
waste his strength than the horse, hence more suitable to 
work with oxen; and as he walks faster, he Avill habituate them 
to a faster gait. In plowing among crops, his feet being small 
and following each other so much more in a line, he seldom 
treads down the ridges or crops. The facility of instructing 
him to obey implicitly the voice of the driver is astonishing. 
The best plowed tillage land I ever saw, I have had perform- 
ed by two mules tandem, without lines or driver. The mule 
is capable of enduring labor in a temperature of heat that 
would be destructive to a horse. 

Although a large mule will consume something over one- 
half the food of a horse, } T et the saving in shoeing, farrying, 
and insurance against diseases and accidents, will amount to at 
least one-half. In addition, the owner may rely with tolerable 
certainty on the continuance of his mule capital for thirty 
years ; whereas the horse owner must, at the end of fifteen 
years, look to his crops, his acres, or a bank for the renewal 
of his. The longevity of a mule is. so proverbial, that a pur- 
chaser seldom inquires his age. Pliny mentions one 80 years 
old ; and Dr. Rees, two in England, that reached the age of 
*70. I saw one performing his labor in a cane-mill in the 
West Indies, which the owner assured me was 40 years old. 
I have now a mare-mule 25 years old, that I have had in con- 
stant work for 21 years. She has often within a year taken a 
ton weight in a wagon to Boston, five miles, and manifests no 
diminution of her powers. A neighbor has one 28 years old, 
which he would not exchange for any horse in the countiy. 
One in Maryland, 35 years old, is now as capable of labor as 
at any f )rmer period." 



ADVANTAGES OF MULE OVER HORSE LABOR. 187 

Mr. Hood of Maryland, in the American Farmer, estimates 
the annual expense of a horse for 12 months, at $44, and 
that of a mule at $22, just half price, and his working age at 
more than twice that of the horse, and that too after 30 years' 
experience in keeping both. 

A correspondent of the Baltimore Patriot, asserts that 
" Col. John E. Howard had a pair of mules that worked 30 
years, after which they were sold to a carter in the city, and 
performed hard service for several years longer. Many mules 
25 years old, and now in this country, perform well. Many 
have been at hard work for 12 or 15 years, and would now 
sell for $100 each. They are not subject to the colt's ail- 
ments, the glanders, heaves, yellow- water, and colic, like 
horses ; and seldom are afflicted with spavin, ringbones, or 
bots ; and they will not founder." 

General Shelby says, "he has known mules to travel 12 
miles within the hour in light harness, and has himself driven 
a pair 45 miles in six hours, stopping an hour by the way." 
Four match mules have been sold in this country for $1,000. 
They were of course superior animals, and made elegant 
coach-horses. These animals were driven 80 miles in a day 
without injury ; and they proved a first-rate team for many 
years. 

Mr. Ellicott, of the Patuxent Furnaces, asserts that, " out 
of about 1Q.0 mules at the works, we have not lost on an 
average one in two years. Bleeding at the mouth will cure 
them of nearly every disease, and by being turned out on 
pasture, they will recover from almost every accident. I do 
not recollect we have ever had a wind-broken one. They 
are scarcely ever defective in the hoof, and though kept 
shod, it is not as important as with the horse. Their skin is 
tougher than that of the horse, consequently they are not as 
much worried by flies, nor do they suffer so much with the 
heat of summer." 

To the foregoing testimony may be added that of the late 
Judge Hinckley of Massachusetts ; a shrewd and close ob- 
server through a long life of 84 years. He bred mules at an 
early da} r , and always kept a team of them for his farm work, 
much preferring them to horses for this purpose, after an ex- 
perience of 50 years. He had a pair nearly 30 years old, 
which, with light pasturage in summer, and with a moderate 
supply of hay with little grain in winter, and no grooming, 
performed all the drudgery, though he kept his stable full of 
horses besides. They outlived successive generations of 



188 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

horses, and though the latter were often sick and out of con- 
dition, the mules never were. One from his stock, 45 years 
old, was sold for the same price paid for a lot of young 
mules, being at that mature age perfectly able to perform, his 
full share of labor. 

For the caravans that pass over the almost inaccessible 
ranges which form the continuation of the Rocky Mountains, 
and the extensive arid ^ plains that lie between and west of 
them, on the route from Santa Fe to California, mules are the 
only beasts of burden used in these exhausting and perilous 
adventures. Their value may be estimated from, the compar- 
ative prices of mules and horses ; for while a good horse may 
")e bought for $10 to $20, a good mule is worth $50 to $75. 

Dr. Lyman, who recently passed through those regions, in- 
'orms us that their caravan left Santa Fe with about 150 mules, 
15 or 20 horses, all beasts of burden, and two choice blood- 
norses, which were led and treated with peculiar care. On 
the route, all the working-horses died from exhaustion and suf- 
fering ; the two bloods that had been so carefully attended, 
but just survived ; yet of the whole number of mules but 8 
or 10 gave out. A mule 36 years of age was as strong, en- 
during, and performed as hard labor, as any one in the cara- 
van. When thirst compelled them to resort for successive 
days to the saline waters, which are the only ones furnished 
by those sterile plains, the horses were at once severely, and 
not unfrequently fatally affected ; while the mules, though suf- 
fering greatly from the change, yet seldom were so much in- 
jured as to require any remission of their labor. 

The mules sent to the Mexican possessions from our west- 
ern states, Missouri, Tennessee, and Kentucky, are considered 
of much more value than such as are bred from the native 
(usually wild) mares. The difference probably arises, in part, 
from the Mexicans using jacks so inferior to most of the stock 
animals used by the citizens of those states. 

Mare mules are estimated in those regions at one -third more 
than horse mules. The reason assigned for this is, that after 
a day's journey of excessive fatigue, there is a larger quantity 
of blood secreted in the bladder, which the female, owing to 
her larger passage, voids at once, and without much apparent 
suffering, while the male does not get rid of it, frequently, till 
after an hour of considerable pain. The effect of this differ- 
ence is seen in the loss of flesh and strength in the male to an 
extent far beyond that of the female. 

The method of reducing refractory mules in the northern Mex- 



THE MULE. ] 89 

ican possessions, is for the person to grasp them firmly by the 
ears, while another whips them severely on the fore-legs and 
belly. 

Estimated annual saving to the United States from the em- 
ployment of mules in the place of horses.— -To sum up the ad- 
vantages of working mules over horses, we shall have as 
advantages: 1. They are more easily, surely, and cheaply 
raised. 2. They are maintained, after commencing work, for 
much less than the cost of keeping horses. 3. They are not 
subject to many of the diseases of the horse, and to others 
only in a mitigated degree, and even these are easily cured in 
the mule. 4. They attain a greater age, and their average 
working years are probably twice that of the horse. 

In 1840, there were reported to be 4,335,669 horses and 
mules in the Union, no discrimination having been made be- 
tween them. Suppose the total number at the present time is 
4,650,000, and that of these 650,000 are mules. If we de- 
duct one-fourth, supposed to be required for the purposes of 
breed, fancy-horses, &c, we shall have 3,000,000- horses, 
whose places may be equally well supplied by the same num- 
ber of mules. We have seen that Mr. Hood, of Maryland, 
estimates the expense of a working horse at $44 per annum, 
(not an over estimate for the Atlantic states,) while that of the 
mule is $22. The difference is $22, which it is proper to re- 
duce to meet the much lower rate of keeping at the West. If 
we put the difference at $10, we shall find the saving in the 
keep, shoeing, farriery, &c, by substituting mules for the 
3,000,000 horses that can be dispensed with, will be $30,000,000 
per annum. But this is not all. 

The working age of the horse will not exceed an average of 
eight years, while that of the mule is probably over sixteen. 
To the difference of keep, then, must be added the annual 
waste of the capital invested in the animal. A mule is more 
cheaply raised to working age than a horse, but allowing them 
to cost equally, we shall have the horse exhausting one-eighth 
of his capital annually for his decay, when the mule is using 
up but one-sixteenth ; and if we allow $48 as the first cost of 
both animals, we shall find the horse wasting $6 annually for 
this item, while the mule deteriorates but $3, making an addi- 
tional item of $9,000,000. This will give an aggregate of 
$39,000,000, as the annual saving to the United States by 
substituting good mules for three-fourths of the horses now 
used in this country. When will our farmers have the good 
sense to make this change ? It may be fairly answered, when 



190 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

they shall prefer utility, interest, and a just taste, to a dis- 
eased fancy ; for though we admit the superiority in appear- 
ance of the race of horses over mules, Ave deny that a bad 
horse looks better or even as well as a good mule ; and with 
the same keep and attention, a good mule will outwork and 
outlook most horses of any breed. 

The comparative Economy of Horse and Ox Labor. 

This is a question which has been often discussed, and when 
with candor, the conclusion has generally been in favor of ox- 
labor. The different employments, the variety of situation, 
the season, and the kind of stock reared on the farm, are all 
questions which should be fully considered in arriving at their 
true comparative advantages. Most farmers would find it for 
their interest to keep teams of each, where there is employ- 
ment for more than one ; or if this be not the case, the pref- 
erence should be given to that which is best suited in all re- 
spects to their particular position. 

If work upon the road is required, a horse team will gener- 
ally be best. Their superiority will consist principally in theii 
greater speed ; for even with a heavy load, they will be able to 
trot occasionally, and when driven without it, they may in- 
crease their pace to nearly double the natural gait of the ox. 
This will amount to a large annual saving in the time of the 
driver when steadily employed. The same is true when re- 
moving manures or crops on the farm to remote distances, 
over a smooth surface, which admits of trotting with the empty 
wagon. Harrowing ought always to be done with a quick 
team, as a violent stroke of the teeth breaks the clods and 
pulverizes the earth much better than when slowly dragged. 

But we should assume in this comparison, that oxen shall 
not only be well adapted to their work by their natural for- 
mation, like the Hereford, the Devon, and others equally good, 
but also that they be well trained, well managed, accustomed 
to quick movements, and as well fed and looked after as 
horses. We shall then find their walk equal to a quick horse 
team, and that in this case the horse will have no advantage 
over the ox in harrowing. For plowing, the teams are on a 
par, as a good ox team will do as much in a day in cool 
weather as horses. 

The situation of the farm may materially affect this estimate. 
In a warm climate, horses, and more especially mules, would 
be more serviceable than oxen, as they are capable of enduring 



COMPARATIVE EOWOMY OF HORSE AND OX LABOR. 191 

much greater heat with impunity. If the farm be small and 
convenient to market, the labor may, in general, be best ac- 
complished by oxen, as little travelling will be required. So, 
too, if the land be stony or rough, the plowing and harrow- 
ing will be more kindly and patiently done by oxen than by 
spirited horses. Other considerations will suggest themselves 
as affecting the comparative economy of this labor. 

The time of work is to be fully considered. If much and heavy 
work be required in summer, as is often the case in plowing 
extensive wheat farms, horses are to be preferred ; yet if the 
ox-team be started at early dawn, and worked briskly four or 
five hours, and then turned out to rest with a supply of suit- 
able food, they may again commence when the extreme heat 
has abated, and accomplish a day's work that few horses will 
exceed. During the season of muddy roads, the horse, with 
his broad, compact foot, and longer ]eg, has a decided advan- 
tage over the ox. If the ox draws by the yoke, (which on the 
whole is the best mode,) he is liable to a sore neck when work- 
ing in wet or snowy weather, and at such times he is over- 
matched by his competitor. 

The kind of stock raised on the farm has an important bear- 
ing on this question. Some farms are devoted to rearing 
horses, and some exclusively to rearing cattle. These occa- 
sionally remain on hand after they are fit for market, from the 
want of a profitable demand. They can then be employed 
not only without injury, but in consequence of the thorough 
training thus secured, with positive benefit to their future value. 

Even if intended for the shambles, the well-developed ox 
may advantageously be put to light work at three, after which 
it may be gradually increased till he is six or eight, and during 
all this time he will be improving. After doing an early 
spring's work, he n ly then be turned on to good pasture, and 
if followed with proper stall-feeding, he will in the latter part 
of the winter or spring yield a tender, better-flavored, and 
more profitable carcass, than can be procured by any other 
mode of fattening. 

The first cost of oxen is less than that of horses, and they 
are at all times cheaply reared on the coarser herbage of the 
farm. The expense of working-gear, tackle, and shoeing, is 
much less than with horses. They are subject to fewer dis- 
eases, and these are more within the reach of ordinary medi- 
cines. The cost of food is also less, and while the horse is 
depreciating, the ox is increasing in value till eight or nins 
years old. 



192 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

Accidents are less frequent with oxen, from their slower 
movements ; and when the}? occur, the ox may be turned out 
to fatten, and still be worth as much for this purpose as for 
the yoke. A permanent injury to the horse is perhaps a total 
loss of the beast, with a large farrier's bill in addition, for 
which there is nothing to liquidate it but the hide. 

The small farmer can make out a most serviceable team, by 
putting a single horse before a yoke of cattle. If well trained, 
they will soon accommodate themselves to each other's pace, 
and work as advantageously together as an entire team of either 
class would do alone. 

Bulls are .frequently put to the draught, and when they 
have not other services that fully test their powers, they can- 
not be better employed. Heifers and cows are sometimes 
worked, but hitherto they have aot been used to any extent in 
this country. In the absence of other animals, they might 
perform light work to advantage, but severe labor would stint 
their growth or impair their milk beyond the benefit derived 
from it. The spayed lieifer is an exception to the foregoing 
remark, and by many is esteemed even more useful than an 
ox of equal weight. 

We have no definite statements of the comparative money 
value of the labor of oxen and horses. But in England re- 
peated trials have been made, and while some have discovered 
no advantage in the employment of oxen over horses, others 
have proved them decidedly superior. One Anglesey farmer 
found in an experience of three years, with 12 horses and 20 
oxen, which accomplished an equal amount of work, that he 
had saved by the latter, $1150, 

The foregoing facts prove the subject to be one of sufficient 
importance, to justify the closest investigation of every farmer 
to determine for himself the comparative value of ox, horse, or 
mule labor. 



CHAPTER VII 



SWINE. 



The hog is a cosmopolite of almost every zone, though hi* 
natural haunts, like those of the hippopotamus, the elephant, 
the rhinoceros, and most of the thick-skinned animals, are 



SWINE. 



193 



in warm climates. They are most abundant in China, the 
East Indies, and the immense range of islands which extends 
over the whole Southern and Pacific Oceans; but they are 
also numerous throughout Europe, from its southern coast to 
the Russian dominions within the Arctic. 

Fi ff . 32. 




The Wild Boar. 

In the United States, swine have been an object of attention 
since its earliest settlement, and whenever a profitable market 
could be found for pork abroad, it has been exported to the 
full extent of the demand. For near twenty years following 
the commencement of the general European wars, soon after the 
organization of our national government, it was a comparatively 
large article of commerce ; but from that time, exports have 
not been justified to any extent, till within the last two years, 
since which, a material reduction in the British import duty on 
pork, lard, and hams, has again brought it up as a prominent 
article of trade with that country. The recent use which has 
been made of the carcass in converting it into lard oil, has 
still further increased its consumption. 

S ne are reared in <* V ery P art of the Union, and when 
17 



*194 DOMESTIC ANi'JlALS. 

properly managed, always at a Lir profit. At the extreme 
North ; in the neighborhood of large markets ; and on such 
of the Southern plantations as are particularly suited to sugar 
or rice, they should not be raised beyond the number required 
for the consumption of the coarse or refuse food produced, 
Swine are advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or 
orchard, as with little additional food besides what is thus 
afforded, they can be put into good condition for the butcher. 
But it is on the rich bottoms and other lands of the West, 
where Indian corn is raised in profusion, and at small expense, 
that they can be reared in the greatest numbers and yield the 
largest profit. The Sciota, Miami, Wabash, Illinois, and other 
valleys, and extensive tracts in Kentucky/Tennessee, Missouri, 
and some adjoining states, have for many years taken the lead 
in the production of swine ; and it is probable the climate and 
soil, which are peculiarly suited to their rapid growth, as well 
as that of their appropriate food, will enable them forever to 
remain the leading pork-producers of the North American 
continent. 

Breeds of Swine. 

The breeds cultivated in this country are numerous, and like 
our native cattle, they embrace many of the best, and a few 
of the worst to be found among the species. Great attention 
has for many years been paid to their improvement in the 
Eastern states, and nowhere are there better specimens than in 
many of their yards. This spirit has rapidly extended West 
and South ; and among most of the intelligent farmers who 
make them a leading object of attention, on their rich corn 
grounds, swine have attained a high degree of excellence. 
This does not consist in ;he introduction and perpetuity of 
any distinct races, so much as in the breeding up to a desirable 
size and aptitude for fattening, from such meritorious individu- 
als of any breed, or their crosses, as come within their reach. 

Fig. 33, represents an English breed of hogs, a century or 
more ago : though coarse and slouch-eared, it is yet the por- 
trait of a tolerable hog, and far before many of the swine that- 
still maintain their ascendency in vario .is parts of the European 
continent. This breed is nearly extinct, having been crossed 
successively by the -Chinese and other good breeds, thus di- 
minishing the size and materially improving its thrift and ten- 
dency to fattening. We hav3 few such animals in the United 
States, though we have man; that are worse. 



BREEDS OF SWINE. 



195 



Fie. 33. 




OH3 ST f. CIHON. 



Old English Hog. 



The Byefield, some 30 years ago, was a valuable liog in tke 
Eastern states, and did much good among the species gen- 
erally. They are white, with fine curly hair, well made and 
compact, moderate in size and length, with broad backs, and 
at 15 months attaining some 300 to 350 lbs. net. 

The Bedford or Wohuni is a breed originating with the 
Duke of Bedford, on his estate at Woburn, and brought to 
their perfection, probably, by judicious crosses of the China 
hog, on some of the best English swine. A pair was sent by 
the duke to this country, as a present to Gen. Washington, 
but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger in Maryland, 
in which state and Pennsylvania they were productive of much 
good at an early day, by their extensive distribution through 
different states. Several other importations of this breed have 
been made at various times, and especially by the spirited 
masters of the Liverpool packet ships, in the neighborhood of 
New York. They are a large, spotted animal, well made, and 
inclining to early maturity and fattening. They are an ex* 



196 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



ceedingly valuable hog, but are nearly extinct both in England 
snd this country, as a breed. 

The Leicester* are a large, white hog, generally coarse in the 
bone and hair, great eaters, and slow in maturing. Some 
varieties of this breed differ essentially in these particulars, 
and mature early on a moderate amount of food. The crosses 
with smaller compact breeds, are generally thrifty, desirable 
animals. Other large breeds deserving commendation in this 
country, are the large Miami tvhite, the Yorkshire white, and 
the Kenilworth, each frequently attaining, wlien dressed, a 
weight of 600 to 800 lbs. 

Fig. 34. 




China Ho^. 



The Chinese is among the smaller varieties, and without 
doubt is the parent stock of the best European and American 
swine. They necessarily var} 7 in appearance, size, shape, and 
color, from the diversity in the style of breeding, and the 
various regions from which they are derived. 

The Fig. represents the pure China pig, and is a striking 
likeness of many of the imported and their immediate descend- 
ants that we have seen in this country. They are too small 
an animal for general use, and require to be mixed with larger 



BREED3 oF SWINE. 



197 



breeds to produce the most profitable carcass for the market. 
For the purpose of refining the coarse breeds, no animal nag 
ever been so successful as this. They are fine-boned, short, 
and very compact, with bellies almost touching the ground, 
light head and ears, fine muzzle, of great docility and quiet- 
ness, small feeders, and producing much meat for the quantity 
of food consumed. 

From the rapidity with which generations of this animal are 
multiplied, the variety of other b.eeds on which they are 
crossed, and the treatment to which they are subjected, it is 
not surprising that their descendants should rapidly assume 
distinct features. They furnish not only a strong dash of 
blood in the best class of large breeds, but in such of the 
smaller as have any pretensions to merit, they constitute the 
greater part of the improvement. Such are the Neapolitan, 
the Essex half -black, the Grass breed, and some others. 
Fi<r. 35. 




Berkshire Hog. 

The Berkshires are an ancient English breed, formerly of 
laro-e size, slow feeders, and late in maturing:. Their color 
was a buff or sandy ground, with large black spots, and the 
feet, 'ower part of the legs, and tuft on the tail, buff. The 



198 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

latter color lias given place, in most of the modern ace, to 
white in the same parts. This variation, with the more im- 
portant ones of early maturity and good feeding-properties, 
are by Professor Low ascribed to a Chinese cross, which 
has added the only characteristic in which they were before 
deficient. 

They were first introduced and reared as a distinct breed in 
this country by Mr. Brentnall, of Orange Co., and Mr. Hawes, 
of Albany, N. York. In their hands, and those of other skil- 
ful breeders, their merits were widely promulgated. No other 
breeds have been so extensively diffused in the United States, 
within comparatively so brief a period, as the Berkshires, since 
1832, and they have produced a marked improvement in many 
of our former races. 

They weigh variously, from 250 to 400 lbs. net, at 16 
months, according to their food and style of breeding ; and 
some full-grown have dressed to more than 800 lbs. They 
particularly excel in their hams, which are round, full, and 
heavy, and contain a large proportion of lean, tender, and 
juicy meat, of the best flavor. 

None of our improved breeds afford^ long, coarse hair or 
bristles ; and it is a gratifying evidence of our decided im- 
provement in this department of domestic animals, that our 
brush-makers are under the necessity of importing most of 
what they use from Russia and northern Europe. This im- 
provement is manifest not only in the hair, but in the skin, 
which is soft and mellow to the touch ; in the finer bones, 
shorter head, upright ears, dishing face, delicate muzzle, and 
mild eye ; and in the short legs, low flanks, deep and wide 
chest, broad back, and early maturity. 

Breeding. 

Swine should not be allowed to breed before 12 or 15 
months old, unless the animals are large and coarse, when 
they may be put to it somewhat 37-ounger. Not only choice 
individuals, but such as are well descended, should be selected 
for the purpose of breeding. The sow should be in good con- 
dition, but not fat, nor approaching to it ; and a proper degree 
of exercise is essential to the development of the foetus and tht 
health of the parent ; for which reason, she should have an 
extended range connected with her pen. 

The sow goes with young about 114 days. A week before 
he' time comes rumd, a comfortable, quiet place should be 



MANAGEMENT AND FATTENING* 199 

prepared for her under cover, raid well-protected from cold, 
if the weather be severe ; or if warm, a range in a pasture 
with an open shed to n tire to, is sufficient. Too much litter 
for bedding must be avoided, and no change or disturbance of 
the sow permitted, till two or three weeks after pigging, as 
the restlessness thereby produced may result in the loss of 
the pigs. The sow should be fed only with a small quantity 
of the lightest food or thin gruel, for two or three days, nor 
put on full feed for a week. If inclined to eat her pigs, she 
should be fed two or three times with raw pork or fresh meat. 
The pigs may be taught to crack oats or soaked corn after 
three weeks, and if provided with a trough inaccessible to the 
dam, they will soon learn to feed on milk and other food, pre- 
paratory to weaning. This may take place when they are 8 
or 10 weeks old; and to prevent injury to the sow, let one or 
two remain with her a few days longer, and when finally re- 
moved, if her bag appears to be full, they may be allowed to 
drain the milk after 20 or 30 hours. The sow should be re- 
stricted to a light, dry diet for a few days at this period. 

Management and Fattening. 

There are but two objects in keeping swine, for breeding 
and for slaughter, and their management is consequently sim- 
ple. Those designed for breeding, should be kept in growing 
condition, on light food, and have every advantage for exer- 
cise. Such as are destined exclusively for fattening, ought to 
be steadily kept to the object. 

It is the usual, though a bad practice in this country, to let 
spring pigs run at large for the first 15 months, with such food 
as is convenient ; and if fed at all, it is only to keep them in 
moderate growth till the second autumn. They are then put 
up to fatten, and in the course of 60 or 90 days are fed off 
and slaughtered. During this brief period, they gain from 50 
to 100 per cent, more of dressed weight, than in the 15 or 18 
months preceding : nor even then do they yield a greater 
average weight than is often attained by choice, thrifty pigs, 
which have been well-fed from weaning to the age of 8 or 9 
months. 

Three pigs of the Bedford breed, when precisely 7-J months 
old, dressed 230, 235, and 238J lbs. Two of the Berkshire 
and Leicestei breeds, at 9 months, dressed 304 and 310 lbs, 
Three others >f the Berkshire and Grass breeds, 7 months and 
27 days old we'ghed 240, 250, and 25^ lbs. net. Innume* 



200 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

rable instances could be adduced of similar veights, gained 
within the same time, with a good breed of animals under ju- 
dicious treatment. We have no one accurate account of the 
food consumed, so as to determine the relative profit of short 
or lono; feeding. But that an animal must consume much 
more in 18 or 20 months to produce the same quantity of 
dressed meat, which is made by others of 8 or 9 months, does 
not admit of a doubt. 

We have seen that an ox requires but little more than double 
the quantity of food to fatten, that is necessary for supporting 
existence. If we apply this principle to swine, and state the 
quantity of food which will fatten the pig rapidly, to be three 
times as great as for the support of life, we shall find that the 
pig will fatten in 1 months, on the same food he would con- 
sume to kerp him alive for 21. This is based on the supposi- 
tion that \x>th animals are of equal size. But the pig that 
matures and is slaughtered at 7 months, has only a moderate 
capacity for eating. During the early stages of his growth, 
his size and the consequent incapacity of the digestive organs, 
prevent the consumption of the same quantity which the larger 
animal requires ; and his accumulating fat, his limited respira- 
tion, crnsequent upon the compression of his lungs, and his 
indisposition to exercise, all conspire to keep the consumption 
of food within the smallest possible limit. This result, in the 
absence of any experiment, must be conjectural entirely ; but 
we believe that experiments will show, that of two thrifty 
pigs from the same litter, one of which is properly fed to his 
utm jst capacity for 1 months, and the other fed with precisely 
double the quantity of similar food for 21 months, the first 
will yield more carcass and of a better and more profitable 
quality than the latter, which has consumed 100 per cent, the 
most. 

The food is only one item in this calculation. The oldest re- 
quires the most attention, is liable to more accidents and dis- 
ease, besides the loss of interest. We are necessarily forced to 
the conclusion, that by far the cheapest mode of wintering pigs 
is in the pork-barrel. We can readily anticipate one objection 
to this practice, which is the want of food at the requisite 
season of the year to fatten them. This can be obviated, by 
reserving enough of the previous year's grain, to keep the 
animal in a rapidly thriving state, till the next crop matures 
sufficiently to feed. 

In the rich corn regions, on its beginning to ripen, as it 
does in August, the fields are fenced off into suitable lots, and 



MANAGEMENT 1' AND FASTENING. 201 

large herds are successively turned into them, to consume the 
grain at their leisure. They waste nothing except the stalks, 
which in that region of plenty are considered of little value, 
and they are still useful as manure for succeeding crops ; and 
whatever grain is left by them, leaner droves which follow, 
will readily glean. Peas, early buckwheat, and apples, may 
be fed on the ground in the same way. 

There is an improvement in the character of the grain from 
a few months' keeping, which is fully equivalent to the interest 
of the money and cost of storage. If fattened early in the 
season, they will consume less food to make an equal amount 
of flesh than in colder weather ; they will require less atten- 
tion ; and generally, early pork will command the highest prk e 
in market. 

It is most economical, to provide the swine with a fine 
clover pasture to run in during the spring and summer ; and 
they ought also to have access to the orchard, to pick up all 
the unripe and superfluous fruit that falls. They should also 
have the wash of the house and the dairy, to which add meal, 
and sour in large tubs or barrels. Not less than one-third, 
and perhaps more, of the whole grain fed to swine, is saved 
by grinding and cooking or souring. Yet care must be ob- 
served that the souring be not carried so far as to injure 
the food by putrefaction. A mixture of meal and water, 
with the addition of yeast or such remains of a former 
fermentation as adhere to the side or bottom of the vessel, 
and exposure to a temperature between 68° and 11° will 
produce immediate fermentation. 

In this process there are five stages. The saccharine, by 
which the starch and. gum of the vegetables, in their natural 
condition, are converted into sugar ; the vinous, which changes 
the sugar into alcohol ; the mucilaginous, sometimes taking 
the place of the vinous, and occurring when the sugar solution, 
or fermenting principle is weak, producing a -slimy, glutinous 
product ; the acetic, forming vinegar, from the vinous or alco- 
holic stage ; and the putrefactive, which destroys all the 
nutritive principles and converts them into a poison. The 
precise point in fermentation when the food becomes most 
profitable for feeding, has not yet been satisfactorily deter- 
mined ; but that it should stop short of the putrefactive, and 
probably the full maturity of the acetic, is certain. 

The roots for fattening animals ought to be washed, and 
steamed or boiled; and when not intended to be fermented, 
the meal may be scalded with the roots. A small quantity of 



202 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

salt should be added. Potatoes are the best roots for swine ; 
then parsnips ; orange or red carrots, white or Belgian ; 
sugar beets ; mangel-wurzel ; ruta-bagas ; and the white tur- 
nips, in the order mentioned. The nutritive properties of tur- 
nips are diffused through so large a bulk, that we doubt 
if they can ever be fed to fattening swine with advantage; 
and they will barely sustain lif( when fed to them uncooked. 

There is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine, 
without cooking. When unprepared grain is fed, it should be 
on a full stomach, to prevent imperfect mastication, and con- 
sequent loss of the food. It is better indeed to have it always 
before them. The animal machine is an expensive one to keep 
in motion, and it should be the object of the farmer to put his 
food in the most available condition for its immediate conver- 
sion into fat and muscle. 

Swine ought to be kept perfectly dry and clean, and pro- 
vided with a warm shelter, to which they can retire at pleas- 
ure. This will greatly hasten the fattening and economize 
the food. They thrive better and are generally less subject 
to disease, when long confined in yards, by having a clear run- 
ning stream always accessible, to wallow in. This is one of 
the best preventives of vermin and cutaneous diseases. A hog 
ought to have three apartments, one each for sleeping, eating, 
and evacuations, of which the last may occupy the lowest, and 
the first the highest level, so that nothing shall be drained, and 
as little carried into the first two as possible. They must be 
regularly fed three times a day, and if there is a surplus, it 
should be removed at once. If they are closely confined in 
pens, give them as much charcoal twice a week as they will 
eat. This corrects any tendency to disorders of the stomach. 
Rotten wood is an imperfect substitute for charcoal. 

Graves, scraps, or cracklings, as they are variously called, 
the residuum of rough lard or tallow, after expressing the fat, 
are a good change and an economical food. Some animal 
food, although not essential, is always acceptable to swine. 
When about to finish them off, many feed for a few weeks on 
hard corn. This is proper when slops or indifferent food has 
been given, and meal cannot be conveniently procured ; but 
when fattened on sound roots and meal, it is a wasteful prac- 
tice, as the animal thus falls behind, his accustomed growth. 
It is better to give him an occasional feed of the raw grain, for 
a change, and to sharpen his appetite. 

The products furnished by the carcass of swine ar* numerous. 
Every part }f the anim4 is used for food, and it admits of a 



CURING HAMS AND PORK. 203 

far greater variety of preparation for the table, than any other 
flesh. From the remotest antiquity to the present time, and 
in every grade of barbarous and civilized life, it has been es- 
teemed as one of the choicest delicacies of the epicure. 

Lard-oil (oleine) has, within a few years, given to pork a 
new and profitable use, by which the value of the carcass is 
greatly increased. At some of the large pork-packing depots 
of the West, one-third of the whole quantity has been thus dis- 
posed of. This has withdrawn a large amount of pork from 
the market, and prevented the depression which must other- 
wise have occurred. 

Where the oil is required, the whole carcass, after taking 
out the hams and shoulders, is placed in a tub having two bot- 
toms, the upper one perforated with holes, on which the pork 
is laid, and then tightly covered. Steam, at a high tempera- 
ture, is then admitted into the tub, and in a short time all the 
fat is extracted and falls upon the lower bottom. The remain- 
ing mass is bones and scraps. The last is fed to pigs, poultry, 
or dogs, or affords the best kind of manure. The bones are 
either used fo;' manure, or are converted into animal charcoal, 
worth about three cents per pound, which is valuable for va- 
rious purposes in the arts. When the object is to obtain lard 
of a fine quality, the animal is first skinned, and the adhering 
fat carefully scraped off. The oily, viscid matter of the skin 
is thus avoided. When tanned, the skin makes a valuable 
leather. An aggregate weight of 1790 lbs. from four well- 
fattened animals, after taking out the hams and shoulders, say 
about 400 lbs., gave within a fraction of 1200 lbs. of the best 
lard. 

Stearine and Oleine. — Lard and all fatty matters consist of 
three principles, of which stearine contains the stearic and 
margaric acids, both of which, when separated, are solid, and 
used as inferior substitutes for wax or spermaceti candles. 
The other, oleine, is fluid at a low temperature, and in Ameri- 
can commerce, is known as lard-oil. It is very pure, and ex- 
tensively used for machinery, lamps, and most of the purposes 
for which olive or spermaceti oils are used. 

Caring Hams and Pork, 

After dressing, the carcass should be allowed to hang till 
perfectly drained and cool, when it may be cut up and salted. 
The usual way is to pack the pork in clean salt, adding brine 
to the barrel when filled. Bu: it may be dry salted, by rub' 



204 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

bing it in thoroughly on every side of each piece, with a strong 
leather rubber firmly secured to the palm ot the right hand. 
The pieces are then thrown into heaps and sprinkled with salt, 
and occasionally turned till cured ; or it may at once be pack- 
ed in dry casks, which are occasionally rolled to bring the salt 
into contact with every part. 

Hams and Shoulders 

May be cured in the same manner, either dry or in pickle, 
but with differently arranged materials. The following is a 
good pickle for 200 lbs. Take 14 lbs. of Turk Island salt ; 
^ lb. of saltpetre ; 2 qts. of molasses, or 4 lbs. of brown sugar, 
with water enough to dissolve them. Bring the liquor to the 
scalding point, and skim oft" all the impurities which rise to 
the top. When cold, pour it upon the ham, which should be- 
perfectly cool but not frozen, and closely packed ; and if not 
sufficient to cover it, add enough pure water for this purpose. 
Some extensive packers in Cincinnati and elsewhere, who send 
choice hams to market, add pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nut- 
megs, or mace and cloves. 

The hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle, then 
hung up in the smoke-house, with the small end down, and 
smoked from 10 to 20 days, according to the quantity of 
smoke. The fire should not be near enough to heat the hams. 
In Holland and Westphalia, the fire is made in the cellar, and 
the smoke carried by a flue into a cool, dry chamber. This 
is undoubtedly the best method of smoking. The hams should 
at all times be dry and cool, or their flavor will suffer. Green 
sugar-maple chips are best for smoke ; next to them are hick- 
ory, sweet-birch, corn-cobs, white-ash, or beech. 

The smoke-house is the best place to keep hams till wanted. 
If removed, they should be kept cool, dry, and free from flies. 
A canvass-cover for each, saturated with lime, which may be 
put on with a whitewash brush, is a perfect protection against 
flies. When not to be kept long, they may be packed in dry 
salt, or even in sweet brine, without injury. A common meth- 
od is to pack in dry oats, baked sawdust, &c. 



DISEASES OF SW1J\E. 

Mortifying as the fact may be to human pride, it is never- 
theless certain, that the internal arrangements, the viscera, 
digestive organs, omnivorous propensities, and the genera) 



PULMONARY AFFECTIONS, ETC. 



205 



physiological structure of the hog and the bear, more nearly 
resemble man, than any other animal. Many of their diseases 
may therefore be expected to be a modification of those of the 
human species, and require a similar treatment 




Skeleton of a Pig 

A Maxilla inferior, vel posterior; lower jaw. — B Dentes ; the teeth. — C Ossa 
nasi; the nasal bones. — L> Maxilla superior, vel anterior; upper jaw. — E Os 
frontis ; the frontal bone.— F Orbiculus ; the orbit or socket of the eye.— G Os 
occipitis ; the occipital bone. — H Alias; the first vertebra of the neck. — I Verte- 
bras colli, vel cervieales ; the vertebra-- of the neck.— J Vertebras dorsi, vel dorsa- 
les ; the vertebras of the back— K Vertebras Jumborum, vel lumbales ; the verte- 
bras of the. loins.— L Ossa coccygis ; the bones of the tail.— a Scapula; the 
shoulder-blade. — b Humerus ; the round shoulder-bone. — c Sternum ; the breast- 
bone. — d Ulna; the elbow.— e Radius; the bone of the fore-arm.—/ Os navicu- 
lare ; the navicular bone. — g Phalanges vel ossa pedis ; the first and second bones 
of the foot.— A Phalanges, vel ossa pedis ; the bones of the hoof.— i Pelvis, (ossa 
innorninata ;) the haunch bones.— j Os femoris; the thigh-bone.— k Patella; the 
stifle-bone.— I Tibia ; the upper bone of the leg. — m Tarsus, (one of which is the 
(N) os calcis ;) the hock-bones.— n Os naviculare ; the navicular bone.— o Digiti, 
vel phalanges, (ossa pedis ;) the first digits of the foot. — p Digiti, vel phalanges, 
(ossa pedis ;) the second digits of the foot. 



Pulmonary Affections, Colds, Coughs, and Measles. 

To each of these, swine are peculiarly liable, and, as with 
most other evils, prevention of disease in swine is more easy 
and economical than cure. A dry warm bed, free from winds 
or storms, and suitable food, will most effectually prevent any 
injuries, or fatal attacks. The hog has little external covering 
to protect him against cold. Nature has provided this imme- 
diately within the skin, in the deep layer of fat which sur- 
rounds the full, plump hog. Fat is one of the best non-con« 

18 



206 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

ductors of heat, and the pig which is well-fed bids defiance 
to the intense cold, which would produce great suffering, and 
consequent disease, in the ill-conditioned animal. By the ob- 
servance of a proper medium between too much fat or lean, 
for the store or breeding swine, and providing them with 
comfortable beds and proper feed, nearly all diseases will be 
avoided. 

For Coughs and Inflammation of the Lungs, bleeding should 
immediately be resorted to, after which give gentle purges of 
castor oil, or Epsom salts ; and this should be followed with a 
dose of antimonial powders — 2 grains, mixed with half a 
drachm of nitre. 

For Costiveness or loss of appetite, sulphur is an excellent 
remedy, given in a light mess. 

Itch may be cured by anointing with equal parts of lard 
and brimstone. Rubbing-posts, and a running stream to wal- 
low in are preventives. 

The Kidney Worm is frequently fatal ; and always produces 
weakness of the loins and hind legs, usually followed by entire 
prostration. A pig thus far gone, is hardly worth the trouble 
of recovering, even where practicable. 

Preventives, are general thrift, a range in a good pasture, 
and a dose of half a pint of wood-ashes every week or fort- 
night in their food. A small quantity of saltpetre, spirits of 
turpentine, or tar, will effect the same object. When attacked, 
apply spirits of turpentine to the loins, and administer calomel 
carefully ; or give half a tablespoonful of copperas daily for 
one or two weeks. 

Blind Staggers. 

This is generally confined to pigs, and manifests itself in 
foaming at the mouth, rearing on their hind legs, champing 
and grinding their teeth, and apparent blindness. The proper 
remedies are bleeding and purging freely, and these frequently 
fail. Many nostrums have been suggested, but few are of any 
utility. It is important to f.eep the issues on the inside of the 
fore-legs, just below the knee, thoroughly cleansed. 

The tails of young pigs frequently drop or rot off, which is 
attended with no further disadvantage to the animal than the 
loss of the member. The remedies are, to give a little brim- 
stone or sulphur in the food of the dam ; or rub oil or grease 
daily on the affected parts. It may be detected by a rough- 
ness -or scabbiness at the point where separa'ion is likely to 
ocem 



FARM-DOGS. 207 

Bleeding. — The most convenient mode, is from an artery- 
just above the knee, on the inside of the fore- arm. It may be 
drawn more copiously from the roof of the mouth. The flow 
of blood may usually be stopped, by applying a sponge or 
cloth with cold water. 

The diseases of swine, though not numerous, are formidable, 
and many of them soon become fatal. They have not been 
the subject of particular scientific study, and most of the rem- 
edies applied, are rather the result of casual or hap-hazard 
suggestion, than of well-digested inference, from long- continued 
and accurate observation. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



FARM-DOGS. 



No grazing farm is complete without one or more intelligent, 
»v ell-trained dogs, adapted to the various wants of their owners ; 
and the general taste has made their presence almost universal 
in every rural household. The dog is peculiarly the friend 
of man. Many other animals have a temporary though feeble 
attachment to him, which seems the result rather of constant 
companionship, or the selfishness of dependence, than any 
well-settled affection towards a master. 

The dog alone, of all the brute creation, seems capable of a 
disinterested, self-sacrificing affection ; and this, united with 
his usefulness and adaptedness to all climes and countries, has 
made him a favorite in every quarter of the globe. Since this 
animal is the habitual tenant of the farm, and, when suited to 
his peculiar duties, can be made of great utility by the assist- 
ance he is capable of affording in its management, we deem it 
entirely appropriate to our subject to indicate such of the spe- 
cies as are deserving the farmer's attention. Discarding all 
ideas of fancy or sportsmanship, and looking to utility alone, 
we may safely affirm that the farmer needs only such as may 
be found in the four breeds of the Newfoundland, the Shep- 
herd's and Drover's dosr, ant the Terrier. 



208 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

Fi ft 37. 




Newfoundland Dog. 

The Newfoundland Dog. 

This dog, of which we give a portrait, is always above me- 
dium height, and frequently is of the largest size. He is long- 
haired and shaggy, and has a thick coat of fine, soft fur, be- 
neath the outer covering, which is almost impenetrable by 
water. His color is most frequently black ; often spotted and 
partially flecked or grayish ; and occasionally buff. The 
Newfoundland is of the Spaniel family, but derives its name 
from the island where it has been bred for centuiies, to the 
great advantage of its inhabitants. There are two varieties : 
the large, used in the north, called the Labrador ; and the 
smaller, more docile and intelligent, of the south, called the St. 
John's. They are employed by the islanders, and the people 
of the neighboring coast, in drawing their sleds and carts load- 
ed with fish, wood, <fec. They aid them in various ways in 
their fishing operations ; they are strong, courageous, and 
watchful ; and with slight training, they are scarcely inferior 
to the best hunting-clogs in pursuing the wild game that 
abounds in those high northern latitudes. These estimable 
qualities, coupled with their uniform good-nature, have always 
made them favorites with the farmer. 

The Newfoundland is an excellent watch-dog ; sagacious in 
discriminating between a friend and a foe, and with courage 



THE SHEPHERD'S DOG. 209 

and strength to follow out his prompt and judicious conclu- 
sions. He is easily trained for the drover, to whom he is fre- 
quently a great assistant ; and with a scent sufficiently acute 
to pursue game, he is readily broken in as a useful companion 
to the sportsman. He can also be made serviceable in the 
various duties of the farm : destroying noxious vermin, taking 
the cattle and horses to the field or water, drawing a light 
load, churning the butter, &c. It is true, he has not all the 
sagacity of the Poodle, whose intelligence approaches nearer 
to human reason than any other of the brute creation. But if 
he has not that quick apprehension, which too often leads, as 
in the case of forward children, to the attainment of every 
worthless accomplishment and the indulgence of every loafer- 
ish habit, he seems to have a sedate, well-formed judgment, 
which makes aH his wit available for some useful purpose. He 
is unsurpassed as a water-dog; and his courageous efforts, 
wherever an opportunity has been afforded, in rescuing number- 
less human beings from a watery grave, together with his un- 
swerving fidelity and devotion, commend him as the prince of 
the canine family. 

The Shepherd's Dog, 

This animal, of which we give a beautiful portrait on the next 
page, of the long-haired Scottish breed, belongs to the same 
family as the Newfoundland and Poodle, which embraces the 
most intelligent and useful of the canine species. There are 
two classes of these dogs, which differ widely in their size 
and characteristics. 

The larger is of great size and courage, and when protected 
by a stout leather collar studded with spikes, is a full match 
for the wolf. These are used by the Spanish and Mexican 
shepherds, on their wild sierras, as effective guards against the 
attacks of all marauders, and are essentially the same race as 
the far-famed dogs of Mount St. Bernard. ' They are not suf- 
ficiently gentle for guides, and the shepherds who employ 
them rely on some well-trained wethers or goats to lead the 
ilock at their call. Some have been imported into this country, 
but on account of their headstrong and ferocious character, 
and occasional depredations upon the flocks, they have been 
found unsuited to our wants, except on the borders of the 
wilderness. 

The Colley or Scottish sheep-dog, the "English, and those 
extensively used upon the continent, differ much in their form 
and appearance, but agree in their intelligence, docility, and 

18* 



210 



DOMESTIC AN MiiA 
Fiff. 38 




Shepherd's Dog 

usefulness. They are of medium size, with a sharp nose, 
broad forehead, and small upright ear ; they are both shaggy 
and smooth-haired, with a bushy tail, and much hair about 
the neck ; variously colored, though more frequently inclined 
tc black or darkly spotted and gray ; and one branch of the 
family is entirely destitute of a tail. They possess an instinc- 
tive sagacity for the management of sheep ; and in company 
with a well-trained dog, under the direction of the shepherd, 
they soon become entirely competent to the control of the 
flock. They perceive his wishes by a word or sign, and with 
almost the speed of the greyhound, dart off to execute them. 
Accounts of their performances have been frequently related, 
which seem almost incredible to those unacquainted with their 
peculiar character. The following anecdote, often told by the 
gifted poet, Mr. James Hogg, more generally known by the 
soubriquet of the Ettrick Shepherd will shov their capacity 
more fully than any description. 



THE DROVER'S DOG. 211 

' On one night, a large flock of lambs that were under the 
Ettrick Shepherd's care, frightened by something, scampered 
away in three different directions across the hills, in spite of 
all that he could do to keep them together. ' Sirrah/ said the 
shepherd, ' they're a' awa !' It was too dark for the dog and 
his master to see each other at any considerable distance, but 
Sirrah understood him, and set off after the fugitives. The 
night passed on, and Hogg and his assistant traversed every 
neighboring: hill in anxious but fruitless search for the lambs ; 
but he could hear nothing of them nor of the dog, and he was 
returning to his master with the doleful intelligence that he 
had lost all his lambs. ' On our way home, however/ says 
he, ' we discovered a lot of lambs at the bottom of a deep ra- 
vine called the Flesh Cleuch, and the indefatigable Sirrah 
standing in front of them, looking round for some relief, but 
still true to his charge. We concluded that it was one of the 
divisions which Sirrah had been unable to manage, until he 
came to that commanding situation. But what was our as- 
tonishment when we discovered that not one lamb of the flock 
was missing ! How he had got all the divisions collected in 
the dark, is beyond my comprehension. The charge was left 
entirely to himself from midnight until the rising sun ; and, if 
all the shepherds in the forest had been there to have assisted 
him, they could not have effected it with greater promptitude. 
All that I can say is, that I never felt so grateful to any 
creature under the sun as I did to my honest Sirrah that 
morning.' " 

They are quiet and good-natured, never inclined to roam or 
neglect their duties, and as little disposed to injure the animals 
intrusted to their keeping. They have almost the intelligence 
of the shepherd in discerning the vagaries of the flock, and ten 
times his efficiency in driving it. No extensive sheep-walks, 
unless closely hemmed in by impassable fences, should be 
without one or more of these useful animals. 

The Drover's Dog, 

This animal is shown in the annexed figure. He is closely 
allied to the sheep-dog, from which he derives all his intelli- 
gence and capacity, differing only in being somewhat larger 
and heavier, which is essential to his controlling the sturdier 
bullocks under his charge. His additioial size is acquired by 
crossing with some of the stouter races, such as the Newfound- 
land or the pointer; and even the bull-dog and large shaggy 



212 



DOMESTIC ANTMALd. 
Fig. 39. 




Drover s Dog. 



ten ier have sometimes been resorted to for a strain of that in- 
domitable courage and game, which is frequently requisite to 
the proper discharge of his duties. He requires more training 
than the sheep-dog, as his peculiar instincts are rather to the 
management of the flock than the herd ; but when fairly bro- 
ken in, he is equally expert in its management. The drover's 
dog may also be useful for watching, if crossed with a refer- 
ence to this object, which the sheep-dog seldom is. 



The Terrier. 

This, in addition to the foregoing, is the only dog necessary 
to the farm. He is needed principally for his great sagacity 
and indefatigable perseverance in exterminating rats and other 
vermin, that frequent y congregate in swarms around the 
farmer's premises, producing such an aggregate of annoyance 
and devastation. Other dogs may occasionally be good rat- 
ters, but the terrier takes to them from nstinct, as the New- 



THE TERRIER. 213 

foundland does to the water, or the sheep-dog to his flock. 
He has great ingenuity and activity in ferreting out and cap- 
turing his prey, and whenever a fair opportunity is afforded, 
he seldom fails of success. The famous English terrier, Billy, 
on two occasions, killed 100 rats in a ring at each time, in an 
average of less than six and a half minutes. 

The terrier is usually below the medium size, but sometimes 
fully comes up to or even exceeds it. He is smooth-haired 
or rough according to the breed, of which there are several, 
each claiming to be equally pure. Besides his capacity for 
the destruction of small game, his innate love for the sport 
renders him a valuable assistant in keeping off vagrant cattle 
from the premises ; and his quick ear, habitual watchfulness, 
and prompt courage, fully qualify him, to the extent of hi* 
size, for an excellent watch-dog. 

The fancy of country residents may incline them to keep a 
variety of other dogs than are herein enumerated, some of 
which, with good training, can be made partial assistants to 
their masters. But it is unnecessary to specify the various 
breeds that may possibly be of some use on the farm, as the 
slight crossing they will be likely to have, equally with their 
opportunities and the attention bestowed upon them, will serve 
materially to develop or obscure their peculiar instincts. The 
Spaniel family and its crosses will be found to combine the 
greatest intelligence, fidelity, and aptitude to learn ; the hound 
has the keenest scent and greatest endurance in the pursuit of 
game ; while the bull-dog has the most courage, sullen fero- 
city, and strength. Each may occasionally be wanted for a 
strain of blood for some particular objects ; and this is espe- 
cially necessary from the bull-dog in the management of re- 
fractory cattle, or to give the terrier greater stoutness and 
courage. 

The absurd custom of keeping from one to a dozen dogs, 
untrained for any valuable purpose, or supernumeraries even if 
capable of rendering occasional service, ought to be abandoned 
by every rational man. Besides the great annual cost, the 
danger of communicating rabies or madness is sufficient to 
justify a legal restraint on their numbers. The sad havoc 
they commit on the flocks, demands the extermination by law 
of every dog that is guilty, whether 

Mongrel, puppy, whelp, or hound, 
Or cur of low degree. 

And even if it includes the fides J hates, or parlor companions, 



214 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



Tray, Blanche, and Sweetheart, 

the work of extirpation should proceed, to the extent of cur- 
tailing this branch of farm-stock to its wholesome and legiti- 
mate proportions. 



• CHAPTER IX. 

POULTRY. 

Choice varieties of fowls add a pleasant feature to the 
farm premises. They engage the attention and sympathy of 
the juvenile farmers, and the time bestowed in the poultry 
yard keeps them from mischief : it is an agreeable and salutary 
relief from toil and study, and elicits the taste, the judgment, 
and the kindlier feelings of humanity, which are to be matured 
in the future accomplished breeder. When properly managed, 
poultry are a source of considerable profit, yielding more for 
the food they consume, than any other stock, although their 
value is not often considered. The agiicultural statistics of 
the United States, for 1839, give us over $12,000,000 in 
poultry, and it probably exceeds $15,000,000 at the present 
time. It is estimated by McQueen, that the poultry of Eng- 
land exceeds $40,000,000, and yet McCulloch says she im- 
ports 60,000,000 eggs annually from France, (McQueen states 
it at near 70,000,000 ;) and fiom other parts of the continent, 
25,000,000 ; besides 80,000,000 imported from Ireland. Poul- 
try, then, ceases to be an unimportant object of agricultural 
attention, and assumes its appropriate place among the other 
staples of the farmer. 

Hens 

Are the most numerous and profitable, and the most gen- 
erally-useful of the feathered tribe. The hen is peculiarly an 
egg-producing bird. She has the same predisposition for lay- 
ing, that the cow has for secreting milk. Some breeds are 
better adapted for this object than others ; but in all that have 
ever come within Our notice, the proper food and circum- 
stances are alone wanting, to produce a reasonable quantity of 
eggs. 

The egg cons sts of three distinct parts ; the shell, the white. 



HENS THEIR FOOD. 215 

and the yolk. A good-sized egg will weigh 1,000 grains, of 
which about 10*7 are shell, 604 are white, and 289 are yolk. 
Of the shell, 97 per cent, is carbonate of lime, 1 per cent, 
phosphate of lime and magnesia, and 2 per cent, albumen. 
The white consists of 12 per cent, of albumen, 2.7 of mucus, 
-3 of salts, and 85 of water. The yolk has about 17.4 per 
cent, of albumen, 28.6 of yellow oil, 54 of water, with a trace 
of sulphur and phosphorus. 

The foregoing are the constituents of eggs, which have been 
formed when the bird has free access to the various articles 
which constitute her natural food. But they vary with cir- 
cumstances. When-full fed and denied all access to lime, she 
will form- an egg without the shell, and deliver it enclosed in 
the membrane or sack which always surrounds the white, 
when covered by the shell. When scantily fed, they will 
frequently lay ; but from a deficiency of nutriment, the egg 
will be meager and watery, and possess but a small portion of 
the nutritious qualities peculiar to them. 

To produce the largest number of good eggs, several con- 
ditions are important ; and they must especially have an abun- 
dance of the right kind of food. This is the most readily ob- 
tained in part from animal food. In warm weather, when they 
have a free range, they can generally supply their wants in 
the abundance of insects, earth-worms, and other animal mat- 
ters within their reach. The large proportion of albumen 
contained in their eggs, requires that much of their food should 
be highly nitrogenized, and when they cannot procure this- in 
animal matter, it must be given in grains containing it. 

If to the usual qualities of hens, a breed of peculiar elegance, 
of graceful form, and beautiful plumage, be added, together 
with entire adaptation to the economical purposes required, 
good layers and good carcass, we have a combination of utility, 
luxury, and taste in this bird, which should commend them as 
general favorites. They can everywhere be kept with advan- 
tage, except in dense cities. A hen that costs a shilling or 
two, if provided with a suitable range, will consume 30 or 40 
cents worth of lood, and produce from 80 to 250 eggs per 
annum, worth three or four times the cost of feed and attention. 

Tfie Food 

Of hens may consist of different kinds of grain, either broken, 
ground, or cooked ; roots, and especially boiled potatoes, are 
nutritious and economical ; green herbage as clover and most 



210 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



of the grasses, chickweed, lettuce, cabbage, <&c, will supply 
them with much of their food, if fresh and tender. 

Fig. 40, is a Food fountain. The grain is placed in the hopper, 
which is closely covered, and the grain falls into the bottom 
below. It is accessible on four sides by spring doors, which 
are thrown open by the weight of the fowl on the connecting 
spring. One is shown as opened by the fowl in stepping up 
to feed. This is a protection against dirt and vermin. 

Fig. 40. 




Food Fountain, 



Though not absolutely essential to them, yet nothing contrib- 
utes so much to their laying, as unsalted, animal food. This is a 
natural aliment, as is shown by the avidity with which they 
pounce on every fly, insect, or earth-worm which comes 
within their reach. It would not of course pay to supply 
them with valuable flesh, but the blood and offal of the 
slaughter-houses, refuse meat of all kinds, and especially the 
scraps or crackings t© be had at the melters' shops, after 
soaking for a few hours in warm w*iter, is one of the best and 
most economical kinds of food- Such with boiled meal is a 
very fattening food. Grain is at all times best for them 
when cooked, as they will lay more- fatten quicker, and eat 
much less when fed to them in this state ; and it may be thus 
used unground, with the same advantage to the fowls as if 
first crushed, as their digestive organs are certain to extract 
the whole nutriment. All grain is good for them, including 
millet, rice, the deaginous seeds, as the sun-flower, flax, 
!aemp, &c It i? always better to afford them a variety of 



HENS THEIR FOOD. 



217 



grains where they can procure them at their option, and select 
as their appetite craves. 

They are also fond of milk, and especially when it has be- 
come curdled ; and indeed scarcely any edible escapes their 
notice. They carefully pick up most of the waste garbage 
around the premises, and glean much of their subsistence 
from what would otherwise become offensive ; and by their 
destruction of innumerable insects and worms, they render 
great assistance to the gardener. Of course their ever-busy 
propensity for scratching, is indiscriminately indulged just 
after the seeds have been sown and while the plants are 
young, which renders it necessary that they be confined in 
some close yard for a time ; yet this should be as capacious 
as possible. 

"''iff. 41. 




Water Fountain. 

Water is placed in the cask as represented in the Fig., and it 
is then closely stopped, except an opening through a tube 
leading into a vessel below. As the water is exhausted from 
this, it descends from the cask above, and a supply is thus at 
all times within reach of the poultry. 

Their food is better when given to them warm, not hot ■ 
and there should always be a supply before them to prevent 
gorging. It is better to be placed on shelves or suspended 
boxes or hoppers, which are variously and cheaply constructed, 
to keep it clean and out of the reach of rats. Besides their 
food, hens ought to be at all times abundantly supplied with 
clean water, egg or pounded oyster shells, old mortar or 
slacked lime. If not allowed to run at large, where they can 
' 19 



218 



DOMESTIC i NIMALS. 



help themselves, tliey must also be furnished with gravel to 
assist their digestion ; and a box or bed of ashes, sand, and 
dust, is equally essential to roll in for the purpose of ridding 
themselves of vermin. 

Fig. 42. 




Poultry House 



The Hen-house 

May be constructed in various ways to suit the wishes of 
the owner, and when tastefully built it is an ornament to the 
premises. ' It should be perfectly dry throughout, properly 
lighted, and capable of being made tight and warm in winter, 
yet afford all the ventilation desirable at any season. In this, 
arrange the nests in boxes on the sides, in such a manner as to 
humor the instinct of the hen for concealment when she resorts 
to them. When desirable to set the hen, these nests may be 
so placed as to shut out the others, yet open into another 
yard or beyond the enclosure, so that they can take an oc- 
casional stroll and help themselves to food, &c. This prevents 
other hens laying in their nests, while setting ; and it may be 
easily managed, by having their jboxes placed on the wall of 



THE EGG-lfATiaER. 



219 



the building, with a moveable door made t3 open on either 
side at pleasure. Hens will lay equally well without a nest- 
egg, but when broken up, they ramble off and form new nests, 
if they are not confined. They will lay if kept from the cock, 
out it is doubtful if they will thus yield as many eggs. Hens 
disposed to set at improper times, should be dismissed from 
the common yard, so as to be out of reach of the nests, and 
plentifully fed till weaned from this inclination. 

Fig. 43. 




Egg-Hatcher, or Eccalobeon. 

Fig. 43 represents an egg-hatcher or Eccalobeon, made of 
different sizes, with shelves so arranged as to hold from 200 to 
800 eggs without touching each other. The outer box is a 
non-conductor, so as to retain the heat conveyed to every 
part by water tubes, connected by a reservoir below, the 
bottom of which is heated by the flame from a spirit-lamp. 
The temperature is indicated by a thermometer on the door in- 
side, which should be made equal to that of the hen, say about 
106° Fahrenheit. Her natural temperature is somewhat ele- 
vated by the feverish condition of the bird at the period of in- 
cubation. 

Chickens require to be kept warm and dry, for a few days 
after hatching, and they may be fed with hard-boiled eggs, 
crumbs of bread or pudding, and milk or water, and allowed 
to scratch in :he gravel in front of the hen, which should be 
confined in a coop for the first three or four weeks. After 



220 



DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



this, they may be turned loose, when they will thrive on any 
thing the older ones eat. Many use them for the table when 
they are but a few weeks old ; but they are unfit for this pur- 
pose, till they have attained full maturity. 

The white-legs are preferred by some, from the whiteness 
and apparent delicacy of the meat ; but the yellow-legged are 
the richest and most highly-flavored. The color of the feathers 
does not seem to affect the quality of the flesh or their char- 
acter for laying. If we consider the chemical principles of the 
absorption and retention of heat, we should assume the white 
coat to be best, as it is coolest in summer when exposed to 
the sun, and warmest in winter. Yet some of the white 
breeds are delicate, and do not bear rough usage or exposure., 



Fig. 44. 




The Dorking 

Varieties. 

These differ materially in their sizes, shapes, and colors. 

The Dorking is esteemed one of the best, being large, well 
formed and hardy, good layers and nurses, and yielding an 
excellent carcass. They are both white and speckled, and 
generally have five toes. 

The Poland is both white and black, with a large tuft, 



VAK ETIES CF FOWLS. 



221 



generally of white feathers, on the head. They are of good 
size, and excellent layers, but are seldom inclined to set, 
which makes them peculiarly desirable for such as wish eggs 
only. 

The Dominique is a speckled fowl, of barely medium size, 
compact, hardy, good layers, and valuable for the table. The 
Bucks county fowls, heretofore principally reared near Phila- 
delphia, pos&ess but moderate pretensions to notice, except in 
their immense size, a brace of capons having been fattened to 

19^ lbs. when dressed. 
4 

Fig. 45. 




The Bantam. 



The Bantam is but little larger than a pigeon, and is usually 
of a pure white, but is sometimes speckled. It is generally 
feathered to the toes, but may be bred with clean legs. It is 
very domestic, and a pleasant little bird around the premises, 
and is not unprofitable. The Game cock is of medium weight, 
and yields good flesh, but is a poor layer, and an undesirable 
tenant for the farm-yard. Besides these, there are many fan- 
ciful varieties, as the Creeper, with excessively short legs ; the 
Rumpless, without a tail ; the Frizzled, with irregular feathers 
turned towards the head ; the Silky or Merino fowl, with 
brown or buff down, instead of feathers ; the Negro, with its 
black crest, wattles, skin, legs, and feathers; the Java and 
Cochin China, of great size ; several varieties of the Top-knot, 
and others. 

19* 



222 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 



The Diseases of Hens. 



These are not numerous or complicated, and may be mostly 
avoided by proper treatment and food, which are indicated 
with sufficient minuteness in the foregoing observations. 

Gapes or Pip is generally owing to drinking unwholesome 
or dirty water. Remove the white blister On the tip of the 
tongue, and wash with sharp vinegar, diluted with warm 
Avater ; or compel the bird to swallow a large lump of fresh 
butter, mixed with Scotch snuff. It has been cured by open- 
ing the mouth and forcing a* pigeon feather, witfh a tuft of the 
feathers left on the end, (the others having been stripped off,) 
down the windpipe, and gently turning it as withdrawn, to 
be repeated the following day if necessary. This detaches 
large numbers of a slender red worm, collected in the larynx 
of the throat, which impedes respiration and swallowing. A 
little spirits of turpentine mixed with the food is a preventive ; 
as are also clean, whitewashed premises, and good food. 
•After. these attacks, feed for a few days with light food, soaked 
bran and cabbage, or lettuce chopped fine. 

Roup, Catarrh, or swelled head, is shown by feverish symp- 
toms, swollen eyelids, frequently terminating in blindness, 
rattling in the throat, and temporary strangulation. These 
are accompanied with a highly offensive watery discharge, 
from the mouth and nostrils, loss of appetite, and much thirst. 
They should be placed near the fire ; their head bathed in 
warm Castile soap-suds, or milk and water. Stimulating food, 
as flour or barley-meal, mustard and grated ginger, mixed 
and forced down the throat, Boswell says, has been effectual 
in their speedy restoration. This, like many other diseases, is 
contagious, and when it appears, the bird should be at once 
separated from the flock. 

Flux is cured by the yolk of an egg boiled hard; and 
boiled barley soaked in wine. 

Costiveness is removed by giving bran and water with a little 
honey ; or give a small dose of castor oil. 

Vermin are destroyed by giving them clean sand and ashes 
to roll in, adding a little quicklime if necessary. 

Entire cleanliness is necessary for the avoidance of this and 
other diseases. • A perfectly dry range is also essential, nor 
should there be too many together, as this is a fruitful source 
of disease. 



THE TURKEY BREEDING. 223 

THE TURKEY. 

This bird was unknown to the civilized world till the dis- 
covery of this Continent. It was found here both in its wild 
and domesticated state ; and still occupies the whole range 
of the western hemisphere, though the wild turkey disappears 
as the country becomes settled. The wild is larger than the 
domesticated bird, sometimes weighing over 30 lbs. dressed. 
The color of the male is generally a greenish brown, approach- 
ing to black, and of a rich, changeable, metallic lustre. The 
hen is marked somewhat like the cock, but with duller hues. 
Domestication through successive generations dims the bril- 
liancy of their plumage, and lessens their size and hardiness. 
It also produces a variety of colors, though they are mostly 
of a black, buff, pure white, or speckled. 

They give evidence of the comparative recency of their do- 
mestication, in the instinct which frequently impels the cock 
to brood and take care of the young. Nothing is more com- 
mon than for the male bird to supply the place of the hen, 
when any accident befalls her, and to bring up a family of 
young chicks with an equally instinctive regard for their help- 
lessness and safety. 

The flesh of this bird, both wild and tame, is exceedingly 
delicate and palatable ; and though not possessing the high 
game flavor of some of the smaller wild-fowl, and especially 
of the aquatic, as the canvass-back duck, &c, it exceeds them 
in its digestibility and healthfulness. The turkey is" useful 
principally for its flesh, as it seldom lays over a nest-full of 
eggs in one season, when they brood on these and bring up 
their young. If full-fed, and their first eggs are withdrawn 
from them, they frequently lay a second time. 

Breeding. 

Those intended for breeders should be compact, vigorous, 
and large, without being long-legged. They should be daily, 
yet lightly fed through the winter, on grain and roots, and 
some animal food is always acceptable and beneficial to them. 
They are small eaters, and without caution will soon get too 
fat. One vigorous male will suffice for a flock of 10 or 12 
hens, and a single connection is sufficient for each. They 
begin to lay on the approach of warm weather, laying once a 
day, or every other day, till they have completed their fitter ; 
which in the young or indifferently fed, may be 10 or 12, and 



224 DOMESTIC ANIM4LS. 

in the older ones, sometimes reaches 20. The hen is sly in 
secreting her nest, but usually selects a dry, well-protected 
place. She is an inveterate setter, and carefully hatches most 
of her eggs. 

The young may be allowed to remain for 24 hours without 
eating, then fed with hard-boiled eggs made fine, or crumbs 
of wheat bread. Boiled milk, curds, and buttermilk afford an 
excellent food. As they get stronger, oat or barley-meal is 
suitable, but Indian-meal, uncooked, is hurtful to them when 
quite young. They are very tender, and will bear neither cold 
nor wet, and it is of course necessary to confine the old one for 
the first few Aveeks. When able to shift for themselves, they 
may wander over the fields at pleasure ; and from their great 
fondness for insects, they will rid the meadows of innumerable 
grasshoppers, bugs, and beetles, which often do incalculable 
damage to the farmer. Early chickens are sufficiently grown 
to fatten the latter part of autumn or the beginning of winter, 
which is easily done on any of the grains or boiled roots. 
Both are better for being cooked. They require a higher 
roos ting-place than hens, and are impatient of too close con- 
finement, preferring the ridge of a barn, or a lofty tree, to the 
circumscribed limits of the ordinary poultry-house. When 
rightly managed and fed, turkeys are subject to few maladies : 
and even these, careful attention will soon remove. 



THE PEACOCK AND GUINEA-HEN. 

The Peacock is undoubtedly the most showy of the feathered 
race. It is a native of the southern part of Asia, and is still 
found wild in the islands of Java and Ceylon, and some parts 
of the interior of Africa. They are an ornament to the farm 
premises, and are useful in destroying reptiles, insects, and 
garbage ; but they are quarrelsome in the poultry-yard, and 
destructive in the garden. Their flesh is coarse and dark, and 
they are worthless as layers. The brilliant silvery green and 
the-ir ever- varying colors give place to an entire white, in one 
of the varieties. 

The Guinea-lien is a native of Africa and the southern part 
of Asia, where it abounds in its wild state. Most of them are 
beautifully and uniformly speckled ; but occasionally they are 
white on the breast, like the Pintados of the West India 
Islands, and some are entirely white. They are unceasingly 
garrulous ; and their excessively pugnacious character renders 



THE GOOSE BREEDING. 225 

them uncomfortable inmates with the other . poultry. Their 
flesh, though high-colored, is delicate and palatable, but, like 
the peacock, they are indifferent layers. Both are natives of 
a warm climate, and the young are tender and rather difficult 
to rear. Neither of these birds is a general favorite, and we 
omit further notice of them. 

THE GOOSE. 

There are many varieties of the goose. Main enumerates 
twenty-two, most of which are wild ; and the tame are again 
variously subdivided. The common white and gray are the 
most numerous and profitable. The white Bremen is much 
larger, often weighing over 20 lbs. net. It is of a beautiful 
snowy plumage, is domestic and reared without difficulty, 
though not as prolific and hardy as the former. The China 
Goose is smaller than the gray, and one of the most beautiful 
of the family, possessing much of the gracefulness and gen- 
eral appearance of the swan. It i& prolific and tolerably hardy, 
but has not thus far been a successful rival with the first. 
The Guinea or African goose is the largest of the species, and 
equals the size of the swan, often dressing over 25 lbs. It is 
a majestic and graceful bird, and very ornamental to water 
scenery. Several other varieties are domesticated in the United 
States. 

Breeding. 

Geese pah frequently at one year old, and rear their young ; 
bu»j with some kinds, especially of the wild, this is deferred 
till two and sometimes three. They require a warm, dry 
place for their nests, and when undisturbed, they will sit 
steadily ; and if the eggs have not been previously chilled or 
addted, they will generally hatch them all, if kept on the nest. 
To insure this, it is sometimes necessary to withdraw the first 
hatched, to prevent the old ones wandering before all are out. 
The young should be kept in a warm sheltered place till two 
or three weeks old, if the weather be cold or unsettled. The 
best food for the goslings, is barley or oat, or boiled Indian 
meal and bread. Milk is also good for them. They require 
green food, and are fond of lettuce, young clover, and fresh 
tender grass ; and after a few weeks, if they have a free range 
on this, they will forage for themselves. 

Geese are not a profitable bird to raise, unless in places 
where they can procure their own subsistence, or at least 



826 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

during the greater part of the year. This they are enabled U 
do, wherever there are extensive commons of unpastured lands., 
or where there are streams or ponds, lakes or marshes with 
shoal sedgy banks. In these, they will live and fatten through- 
out the year, if unobstructed by ice. They may be fed on all 
kinds of grain and edible roots, but it is more economical to 
give them their food cooked. The well-fattened gosling affords 
one of the most savory dishes for the table. 

Geese live to a great age. They have been known to ex- 
ceed 100 years. If allowed a free range on good food and 
clean water, they will seldom get diseased. When well fed, 
they yield nearly a pound of good feathers in a season, at 
three or four pluckings ; and the largest varieties even exceed 
this quantity. 

DUCKS 

Are more hardy and independent of attention than the 
goose, and they are generally the most profitable. They are 
omnivorous, and greedily eat every thing which will afford 
them nourishment, though they seldom forage on the grasses 
like the goose, when they can procure other food. They are 
peculiarly carnivorous, and devour all kinds of meat, putrid or 
fresh ; and are especially fond of fish, and such insects, worms, 
and other creeping things, as they can find imbedded in the 
mud or elsewhere. They will often distend their crop with 
young frogs, almost to the ordinary size of their bodies. Their 
indiscriminate appetite often renders them unfit for the table, 
unless fattened out of the reach of garbage and offensive 
matters. An English admiral used to resort to well-fattened 
rats for his fresh meat when at sea, and justified his taste by 
saying, they were more cleanly feeders than ducks, which^were 
general favorites. 

The most profitable for domestic ase, is undoubtedly the com- 
mon black duclc. They lay profusely in the spring, when well 
fed, often producing 40 or 50 eggs, and sometimes a greater 
number, if kept from setting. They are much larger than 
those of the hen, and equally rich and nourishing, but far less 
delicate. They are careless in their habits, and generally drop 
their eggs wherever they happen to be through the night, 
whether in the water, the road, or farm-yard ; and as might 
be expected from such prodigality of character, they are in- 
different setters and nurses. 

The dvcklings are better reared by setting the eggs under 



DUCKS— BREEDING. 227 

A sedate, experienced hen, as the longer time necessary for 
hatching, requires patience in the foster-mother to develop the 
young chick. They should be confined for a few days, and 
away from the water. At 'first they may be fed with bread, 
or pudding made from boiled oat, barley, or Indian meal ; and 
they soon acquire strength and enterprise enough to shift for 
themselves, if afterwards supplied with pond or river water. 
They are fit for the table when fully grown, and well fattened 
on clean grain. This is more economically accomplished by 
feeding it cooked. 

The varieties of ducks are almost innumerable. Main de- 
scribes 31, and some naturalists number over 100. Besides 
the black duck above described, several others, as the light 
gray, the white duck, and some of the tufted, are prolific, hardy, 
and profitable. 

We omit further notice of other varieties ; and of the swan, 
brant, pigeons, &c, as not profitable for general rearing, and 
only suited to ornamental grounds. 



KND 



Ml the Books on this Catalogue sent by Mail, to any part of the Ujiion, 
free of postage, upon receipt of Price. 

CATALOQUE OF BOOKS 

on 

AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE, 

PUBLISHED BY 

.A.. O- lylOO^E &z OQ-, 

(Late 0. M. Saxton &>- Co.,) 
No. 140 FULTON STREET, NEW YORK. 

SUITABLE FOR 

SCHOOL, TOWN, AGRICULTURAL, & PRIVATE LIBRARIES. 



AMERICAN FARMER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA, $4 00 

As a Book of Reference for the Farmer or Gardener, this 

Work is superior to any other. It contains Reliable Information for the Cultivation of 
every variety of Field and Garden Crops, the use of all kinds of Manures, descriptions 
and figures of American insects ; and is, indeed, an Agricultural Library in itself, con- 
taining twelve hundred* pages, octavo, and is illustrated by numerous engravings of 
Grasses, Grains, Animals, Implements, Insects, &c, &c. By Gouvernecr Ejtersost of 
Pexxsylva>-ia. 

AMERICAN WEEDS AND USEFUL PLANTS, 1 50 

An Illustrated Edition of Agricultural Botany ; An Enu- 
meration and Description of Weeds and Useful Plants which merit the notice or 
require the attention of American Agriculturists. By Wm. Darlington, M. D. Re- 
vised, with Additions, by George Tucrber, Prof, of Mat. Med. and Botany in the New 
York College of Pharmacy. Illustrated with nearly 300 Figures, drawn expressly for 
this work. 

ALLEN'S CR. L.) AMERICAN FARM BOOK, ----- 1 00 

Or a Compend of American Agriculture ; being a Practical 

Treatise on Soils, Manures, Draining, Irrigation, Grasses, Grain, Roots, Fruits, Cotton, 
Tobacco, Sugar Cane, Rice, and every Staple Product of the United States ; with the 
best methods of Planting, Cultivating and Preparation for Market. Illustrated with more 
than 100 engravings. 

ALLEN'S (R. L.) DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS, - - 75 

Being a History and Description of the Horse, Mule, Cattle, 

Sheep, Swine, Poultry and Farm Dogs, with Directions for their Management, Breeding, 
Crossing, Rearing, Feeding, and Preparation for a Profitable Market ; also, their 
Diseases and Remedies, together with full Directions for the Management of the Dairy, 
and the comparative Economy and Advantages of Working Animals, — the Horse, Mule, 
Oxen, &c. 

ALLEN'S (L. F.) RURAL ARCHITECTURE, 1 25 

Being a Complete Description of Farm Houses, Cottages and 

Out Buildings, comprising Wood Houses, Workshops, Tool Houses, Carriage and Wagou 
Houses, Stables, Smoke and Ash Houses, Ice Houses, Apiaries or Bee Houses, Poultry 
Houses, Rabbitry, Dovecote, Piggery, Barns and Sheds for Cattle, &c, &c. ; together 
with Lawns, Pleasure Grounds and Parks ; the Flower, Fruit and Vegetable Garden ; 
also, the best methol of conducting water into Cattle Yards and Houses. Beautifully 
illustrated. 

ALLEN (J. FISK) ON THE CULTURE OF THE GRAPE, - - 1 00 

A Practical Treatise on the Culture and Treatment of the 

Grape Vine, embracing its History, with Directions for its Treatment in the United 
States of America, in the Open Air and under Glass Structures, with and without 
Artificial Heat. 



JBooks published by A. O. Moore & Co. 

AMERICAN ARCHITECT, - - - - 6 00 

Comprising Original Designs op Cheap Country and Village 

Residences, with Details, Specifications, Plans and Directions, and an Estimate of the Cost 
of each Design. By John W. Bitch, Architect. First and Second Series, 4to, bound in 
1 vol. 

AMERICAN FLORIST'S GUIDE, 75 

Comprising the American Eose Culturist, and Every Lady 

her own Flower Gardener. 
BARRY'S FRUIT GARDEN, ' - - - 1 25 

A Treatise, Intended to Explain and Illustrate the Physi- 

ology of Fruit Trees, the Theory and Practice of all Operations connected with the 
Propagation, Transplanting, Pruning and Training of Orchard and Garden Trees, as 
Standards, Dwarfs, Pyramids, Espalier, &c. The Laying out and Arranging different 
kinds of Orchards and Gardens, the selection of suitable varieties for different purposes 
and localities, Gathering and Preserving Fruits, Treatment of Diseases, Destruction of 
Insects, Description and Uses of Implements, &c. Illustrated with upwards of 150 
Figures. By P. Barry, of the Mount Hope Nurseries, Rochester, N. Y. 

BEMENT'S (C. N.) RABBIT FANCIER, 50 

A Treatise on the Breeding, Rearing, Feeding and General 

Management of Rabbits, with Remarks upon their Diseases and Remedies, to which are 
added Full Directions for the Construction of Hutches, Rabbitries, &c, together with 
Recipes for Cooking and Dressing for the Table. Beautifully illustrated. 

BLAKE'S (REV. JOHN L.) FARMER AT HOME, - - - - 1 25 

A Family Text Book for the Country ; being a Cyclopedia 

of Agricultural Implements and Productions, and of the more important topics in 
Domestic Economy, Science and Literature, adapted to Rural Life. By Rev. John L. 
Blake, D. D. 

BOUSSINGAULT'S (J. B.) RURAL ECONOMY, 1 25 

Or, Chemistry Applied to Agriculture ; presenting Distinctly 

and in a Simple Manner the Principles of Farm Management, the Preservation and Use of 
Manures, the Nutrition and Food of Animals, and the General Economy of Agriculture. 
The work is the fruit of a long life of study and experiment, and its perusal will aid the 
farmer greatly in obtaining a practical and scientific knowledge of his profession. 

BROWNE'S AMERICAN BIRD FANCIER, - - - - - - 25 

The Breeding, Bearing, Feeding, Management and Peculi- 

arities of Cage and House Birds. Illustrated with engravings. 
BROWNE'S AMERICAN POULTRY YARD, 1 00 

Comprising the Origin, History and Description op the 

Different Breeds of Domestic Poultry, with Complete Directions for their Breeding, 
Crossing, Rearing, Fattening and Preparation for Market ; including specific directions 
for Caponizing Fowls, and for the Treatment of the Principal Diseases to which they are 
subject, drawn from authentic sources and personal observation. Illustrated with 
numerous engravings. 

BROWNE'S (D. JAY) FIELD BOOK OF MANURES, - - - - 1 25 

Or, American Muck Book ; Treating of the Nature, Properties, 

Sources, History and Operations of all the Principal Fertilizers and Manures in Common 
Use, with specific directions for their Preservation and Application to the Soil and to 
Crops ; drawn from authentic sources, actual experience and personal observation, as 
combined with the Leading Principles of Practical and Scientific Agriculture. 

BRIDGEMAN'S (TH0S.) YOUNG GARDENER'S ASSISTANT, - - 1 50 

In Three Parts ; Containing Catalogues of Garden and Flower 

Seed, with Practical Directions under each head for the Cultivation of Cu nary Vege- 
tables, Flowers, Fruit Trees, the Grape Vine, &c. ; to which is added a Calendar to each 
part, showing the work necessary to be done in the various departments each month 
of the year. One volume octavo. 

BRIDGEMAN'S KITCHEN GARDENER'S INSTRUCTOR, K Cloth, 50 

" « " " Cloth, 60 



Books published by A. O. Mooke & Co. 3 

BRLDSEMAN'S FLORIST'S GUIDE, - % Cioth, 50 

" " " Cloth, 60 

ERLDGSMAN'S FRUIT CULTIVATOR'S MANUAL, - - K Cloth, 50 

" " " "-■'-.- Cloth, 60 

BBECK'S BOOK OF FLOWERS, - - - 1 00 

In which are Described all the "Various Hardy Herbaceous 

Perennials, AnnualSj Shrubs, Plants and Evergreen Trees, with Directions for their 
Cultivation. 

BUIST'S (EOEEET) AMERICAN FLOWER GARDEN DIRECTORY, 1 25 
Containing Practical Directions for the Culture of Plants, 

in the Flower Garden, Hothouse, Greenhouse, Rooms or Parlor Windows, lor every 
month.in the Year ; with a Description of the Plants most desirable in each, the nature 
of the Soil and situation best adapted to their Growth, the Proper Season for Truns- 
' planting, &c. ; with Instructions for erecting a Hothouse, Greenhonse, and Laying out 
a Flower Garden ; the whole adapted to either Large or Small Gardens, with Instruc- 
tions for Preparing the Soil, Propagating, Planting, Pruning, Training and Fruiting the 
Grape Vine.- 

BUIST'S (EOBEET) FAMILY KITCHEN GARDENER, - - - 75 

Containing Plain and Accurate Descriptions of all the 

Different Species and Varieties of Culinary Vegetables, with their Botanical, English, 
French and German names, alphabetically arranged, with the Best .Mode of Cultivat- 
ing them in the Garden or under Glass ; also Descriptions and Character of the most 
Select Fruits, their Management, Propagation, &c. By Robert Bcist, author of the 
"American Flower Garden Directory," &c. 

CHINESE SUGAR CANE AND SUGAE-MAKING, - - - - 25 

Its History, Culture and Adaptation to the Soil, Climate, 

and Economy of the United States, with an Account of Various Processes of Manu- 
facturing Sugar. Drawn from authentic sources, by Charles F. Staxsbury, A. M., late 
Commissioner at the Exhibition of ail Nations at London. 

CHOELTON'S GEAPE-GEO WEE'S GUIDE, 60 

Intended Especially for the American Climate. Being a 

Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine in each department of Hot- 
house, Cold Grapery, Retarding House and Out-door Culture. With Plans Tor the con- 
struction of the Requisite Buildings, and giving the best methods for Heating the same. 
Every department being fully illustrated. By William Chorltox. 

COBBETT'S AMERICAN GARDENER, 50 

A Treatise on the Situation, Soil and Laying-out of Gardens, 

and the Making and Managing of Hotbeds and Greenhouses, and on the Propagation 
and Cultivation of the several sorts of Vegetables, Herbs, Fruits and Flowers. 

COTTAGE AND FARM BEE-KEEPEE, 50 

A Practical Work, by a Country Curate. 

COLE'S AMEEICAN FEUIT BOOK, 50 

Containing Directions for Raising, Propagating and Manag- 

ing Fruit Trees, Shrubs and Plants ; with a Description of the Best Varieties of Fruit, 
including New and Valuable Kinds. 

COLE'S AMERICAN VETERINARIAN, 50 

Containing Diseases of Domestic Animals, their Causes, Symp- 

toms and Remedies ; with Rules for Restoring and Preserving Health by good manage- 
ment ; also for Training and Breeding. 

DADD'S AMERICAN CATTLE DOCTOR, 1 00 

Containing the Necessary Information for Preserving the 

Health and Curing the Diseases of Oxen, Cows, Sheep and Swine, with a Great Variety 
of Original Recipes and Valuable Information in reference to Farm and Dairy Manage- 
ment, whereby every Man can be his own Cattle Doctor. The principles taught in this 
work are. that all Medication shall be subservient to Nature — that all Medicines must be 
sanative in their operation, and administered with a view of aiding the vital powers, 
instead of depressing, as heretofore, with the lancet or by poison. By G. H. Dadd, M. D., 
Veterinary practitioner. 



Boohs published by A. O. Moore & Co. 

DADD'S MODERN HORSE DOCTOR, - - - - - - - 1 00 

An American Book for American Farmers ; Containing Practi- 
cal Observations on the Causes, Nature and Treatment of Disease and Lameness of 
Horses, embracing the Most Recent and Approved Methods, according to an enlightened 
system of Veterinary Practice, for the Preservation and Restoration of Health. With 
illustrations. 

DADD'S ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE, Plain, . 2 00 
" " " " " Colored Plates, 4 00 

With Anatomical and Questional Illustrations ; Containing, 

also, a Series of Examinations on Equine Anatomy and Philosophy, with Instructions in 
reference to Dissection and the mode of making Anatomical Preparations ; to which is 
added a Glossary of Veterinary Technicalities, Toxicological Chart, and Dictionary of 
Veterinary Science. 

DANA'S MUCK MANUAL, FOR THE USE OF FARMERS, - - 1 00 
A Treatise on the Physical and Chemical Properties of Soils 

and Chemistry of Manures ; including, also, the subject of Composts, Artificial Manures 
and Irrigation. A new edition, with a Chapter on Bones and Superphosphates. 

DANA'S PRIZE ESSAY ON MANURES, - 25 

Submitted to the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for 

Promoting Agriculture, for their Premium. By Samuel H. Dana. 
DOMESTIC AND ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, Plain Plates, _ . . 1 00 
" " " Colored Plates, - . 2 00 

A Treatise on the History and Management of Ornamental 

and Domestic Poultry. By Rev. Edmund Saul Dixon, A. M., with large additions by 
J. J. Kerr, M. D. Illustrated with sixty -five Original Portraits, engraved expressly for 
this work. Fourth edition, revised. 

DOWNING'S (A. J.) LANDSCAPE GARDENING, 3 50 

Revised, Enlarged and Newly Illustrated, by Henry Win- 

throp Sargent. This Great Work, which has accomplished so much in elevating the 
American Taste for Rural Improvements, is now rendered doubly interesting and 
valuable by the experience of all the Prominent Cultivators of Ornamental Trees in the 
United States, and by the descriptions of American Places, Private Residences, Central 
Park, New York, Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, and a full account of the Newer Decidu- 
ous and Evergreen Trees and Shrubs. The illustrations of this edition consist of seven 
superb steel plate engravings, by Smilue, Hinshelwood, Duthie and others ; besides- one 
hundred engravings on wood and stone, of the best American Residences and Parks, with 
Portraits of many New or Remarkable Trees and Shrubs. 

DOWNING'S (A. J.) RURAL ESSAYS, 3 00 

On Horticulture, Landscape Gardening, Rural Architecture, 

Trees, Agriculture, Fruit, with his Letters from England. Edited, with a Memoir of the 
Author, by George Wm. Curtis, and a Letter to his Friends, by Frederika Bremer, and 
an elegant Steel Portrait of the Author. 

EASTWOOD (B.) ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE CRANBERRY, 50 

With a Description of the Best Varieties. By B. Eastwood, 

" Septimus," of the New York Tribune. Illustrated. 
ELLIOTT'S WESTERN FRUIT BOOK, - - - - ■ - - - 1 25 

A ISTew Edition of this Work, Thoroughly Revised. Em- 
bracing all the New and Valuable Fruits, with the Latest Improvements in their Cultiva- 
tion, up to January, 1859. especially adapted to the wants of Western Fruit Growers . 
full of excellent illustrations. By F. R. Elliott, Pomologist, late of Cleveland, Ohio, now' 
of St. Louis. 

EVERY LADY HER OWN FLOWER GARDENER, ... - 50 

Addressed to the Industrious and Economical only ; containing 

simple and practical Directions for Cultivating Plants and Flowers ; also, Hints for tha 
Management of Flowers in Rooms, with brief Botanical Descriptions of Plants and 
Flowers. The whole in plain and simple language. By Louisa Johnson. 



Books published by A. O. Moose & Co. 



FARM DRAINAGE, - - - - 1 00 

The Principles, Processes and Effects of Draining Land, 

with Stones, Wood, Drain-plows, Open Ditches, and especially with Tiles ; including 
Tables of Rainfall, Evaporation, Filtration, Excavation, capacity of Pipes, cost and num- 
ber to the acre. With more than 100 illustrations. By the Hon. Henry F. French, of 
New Hampshire. 

PESSENDEN'S (T. G.) AMERICAN KLTCHEN GARDENER, - - 50 
Containing Directions for the Cultivation of Vegetables and 

Garden Fruits. Cloth. 
FESSENDEN'S COMPLETE FARMER AND AMERICAN GARDENER, 1 25 

Rural Economist and New American Gardener ; Containing 

a Compendious Epitome of the most Important Branches of Agriculture and Rural 
Economy ; with Practical Directions on the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables, includ- 
ing Landscape and Ornamental Gardening. By Thomas G. Fessenden. 2 vols, in 1. 

FIELD'S PEAR CULTURE, 1 00 

The Pear Garden ; or, a Treatise on the Propagation and 

Cultivation of the Pear Tree, with Instructions for its Management from the Seedling to 
the Bearing Tree. By Thomas W. Field. 

FISH CULTURE, 1 00 

A Treatise on the Artificial Propagation of Fish, and the 

Construction of Ponds, with the Description aud Habits of such kinds of Fish as are most 
suitable for Pisciculture. By Theodatus Garlick, M. D. , Vice-President of the Cleveland 
Academy of Nat. Science. 

FLINT ON GRASSES, - - - - - - 1 25 

A Practical Treatise on Grasses and Forage Plants ; Com- 
prising their Natural History, Comparative Nutritive Value, Methods of Cultivation, Cut- 
ting, Curing and the Management of Grass Lands. By Charles L. Flint, A. M., Secre- 
tary of the Mass. State Board of Agriculture. 

GUEN0N ON MILCH COWS, 60 

A Treatise on Milch Cows, whereby the Quality and Quantity of 

Milk which any Cow will give may be accurately determined by observing Natural 
Marks or External Indications alone ; the length of time she will continue to give Milk, 
&c, &c. By M. Francis Guenon, of Libourne, France. Translated by Nicholas P. 
Trist, Esq. ; with Introduction, Remarks and Observations on the Cow and the Dairy, 
by John S. Skinner. Illustrated with numerous Engravings. Neatly done up in paper 
covers, 37 cts. 

HERBERT'S HINTS TO HORSE-KEEPERS, 1 25 

Complete Manual for Horsemen ; Embracing : 

How to Breed a Horse. How to Physic a Horse. 

How to Buy a Horse. (Allopathy and Homoeopathy. 

How to Break a Horse. How to Groom a Horse. 

How to Use a Horse. How to Drive a Horse. 

How to Feed a Horse. How to Ride a Horse. 

And Chapters on Mules and Ponies. By the late Henry William Herbert (Frank 
Forrester) ; with additions, including Rarey's Method of Horse Taming, and Baucher'3 
System of Horsemanship ; also, giving directions for the Selection and Care of Carriages 
and Harness of every description, from the City " Turn Out" to the Farmer's " Gear," 
and a Biography of the eccentric Author. Illustrated throughout. 

HOOPER'S DOG AND GUN, 50 

A Few Loose Chapters on Shooting, among which will be 

found some Anecdotes and Incidents ; also Instructions for Dog Breaking, and interest- 
ing letters from Sportsmen. By A Bad Shot. 

HYDE'S CHINESE SUGAR CANE, 25 

Containing its History, Mode of Culture, Manufacture of 

the Sugar, &c. ; with Reports of its success in different parte of the United States. 



Books published by A. O. Moore & Co.- 

JOHNSTON'S (JAMES F. W.) AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, - 1 25 

Lectures on the Application of Chemistry and Geology to 

Agriculture. New Edition, with an Appendix, containing the Author's Experiments in 
Practical Agriculture. 

JOHNSTON'S (J. F. W.) ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL CHEM- 
ISTRY AND GEOLOGY, 1 00 

With a Complete Analytical and Alphabetical Index, and an 

American Preface. By Hon. Simon Brown, Editor of the " New England Farmer." 

JOHNSTON'S (J. F. W) CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURAL CHEM- 
ISTRY AND GEOLOGY, 25 

By James F. W. Johnston, Honorary Member of the Royal 

Agricultural Society of England, and author of "Lectures en Agricultural Chemistry 
and Geology." "With an Introduction by John Pitkin Norton, M. A., late Professor of 
Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. With Notes and Additions by the Author, pre- 
pared expressly for this edition, and an Appendix compiled by the Superintendent of 
Education in Nova Scotia. Adapted to the use of Schools. 

LANGSTROTH (REV. L. L.) ON THE HIVE AND HONEY BEE, - 1 25 

A Practical Treatise on the Hive and Honey Bee, Third 

edition, enlarged and illustrated with numerous engravings. This Work is, without a 
doubt, the best work on the Bee published in any language, whether we consider its 
scientific accuracy, the practical instructions it contains, or the beauty and completeness 
of its illustrations. 

LEUCHARS' HOW TO BUILD AND VENTILATE HOTHOUSES, - 1 25 

A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating and 

Ventilation of Hothouses, including Conservatories, Greenhouses. Graperies and other 
kinds of Horticultural Structures ; with Practical Directions for their Management, in 
regard to Light, Heat and Air. Illustrated- with numerous engravings. By P. B. 
Leuchars, Garden Architect. 

LIEBIG'S (JUSTUS) FAMILIAR LECTURES ON CHEMISTRY, - 50 

And its relation to Commerce, Physiology, and Agriculture. 
Edited by John Gardener, M. D., 

LLNSLEY'S MORGAN HORSES, - 1 00 

A Premium Essay on the Origin, History, and Characteristics 

of this remarkable American Breed of Horses ; tracing the Pedigree from the original 
Justin Morgan, through the most noted of his progeny, down to the present time. 
With numerous portraits. To which are added Hints for Breeding, Breaking and Gene- 
ral Use and Management of Horses, with practical Directions for Training them for 
Exhibition at Agricultural Fairs. By D. C. Linsley, Editor of the American Stock 
Journal. 

MOORE'S RURAL HAND BOOKS, 1 25 

First Series, containing Treatises on — 

The Horse, The Pests of the Farm, 

The Hog, Domestic Fowos, and 

Tue Honey Bee, . The Cow. 

Second Series, containing — - - - - 1 25 

eviry lady her own flower gardener, essay on manures, 

Foments of Agriculture, American Kitchen Gardener, 

Bibd Fancier, American Rose Culturist. 

Third Series, containing — - 1 25 

Miles on the Horse's Foot, Vine-Dresser's Manual, 

The Rabbit Fancier, Bee-Keeper's Chart, 

Weeks on Bees, Chemistry Made Easy. 

Fourth Series, containing— - - 1 25 

Persoz on thk Vine, Hooper's Dog and Gun, 

Liebig's Familiar Letters, Skillful Housewife, 

Browne's Memoirs of Indian Corn. 



Books published by A. O. Moore & Co. 



MINER'S BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL, - - - - --100 

Being a Peactical Treatise on the History and Domestic 

Economy of the Honey Bee, embracing a Full Illustration of the whole subject, with 
the Most Approved Methods of Managing this Insect, through every branch of iis 
Culture ; the result of many years' experience. Illustrated with many engravings 
By T. B. Mlser. 

MILES ON THE HORSE'S FOOT AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND, 50 

With Outs, Illustrating' the Anatomy of the Foot, and contain- 
ing valuable Hints on Shoeing and Stable Management, in Health and in Disease. By 
Wn. Miles. 

MLLBURN ON THE COW AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, - - - 25 
By M. M. Milburn, and revised by H. D. Richardson and Ambrose 

Stevens. With illustrations. 

MUNN'S (B.) PRACTICAL LAND DRAINER, 50 

Being a Treatise on Draining Land, in which the Most Ap- 
proved Systems of Drainage are Explained, and their Differences and Comparative 
Merits Discussed ; with full Directions for the Cutting and Making of Drains, with 
Remarks upon the various materials of which they may be constructed. With many 
illustrations. By B. Muxx, Landscape Gardener. 

NASH'S (J. A.) PROGRESSIVE FARMER, - 60 

A Scientific Treatise on Agricultural Chemistry, the Ge- 

ology of Agriculture, on Plants and Animals, Manures and Soils, applied to Practical 
Agriculture ; with a Catechism of Scientific and Practical Agriculture. By J. A'. Nash. 

NEILL'S PRACTICAL FRUIT, FLOWER AND KITCHEN GARDEN- 
ER'S COMPANION, - 1 00 

With a Calendar. By Patrick Neill, Secretary of the Royal 

Caledonian Horticultural Society. Adapted to the United States from the fourth 
edition, revised and improved by the Author. Edited by G. Emersox, M. D., Editor of 
" The American Farmer's Encyclopedia." With Notes and Additions by R. G. Pardee, 
author of " Manual of the Strawberry Culture." With illustrations. 

NORTON'S (JOHN P.) ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE, 60 

Or, the Connection between Science and the Art of Practical 

Farming. Prize Essay of the New York State Agricultural Society. By John P. NOR- 
TON, M. A., Professor of Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. Adapted to the use of 
Schools. 

OLCOTT'S SORGHO AND IMPHEE, THE CHINESE AND AFRICAN 

SUGAR CANES, 1 00 

A Complete Treatise upon their Origin and Varieties, Culture 

and Uses, tbeir value as a Forage Crop, and Directions for making Sugar, Molasses. 
Alcohol, Sparkling and Still Wines, Beer, Cider, Vinegar, Paper, Starch and Dye Stuffs! 
Fully illustrated with Drawings of Approved Machinery ; with an Appendix by Leonard 
Wray, of Caffraria, and a Description of his Patented Process of Crystallizing the Juic; 
of the Imphee ; with the Latest American Experiments. By Hexry S. Olcott. 

PARDEE (R. G.) ON STRAWBERRY CULTURE, ----- 60 

A Complete Manual for the Cultivation of the Strawberry -, 

with a Description of the Best Varieties. 

Also notices of the Raspberry, Blackberry, Currant, Gooseberry and Grape ; with 
Directions for their Cultivation, and the Selection of the Best Varieties. " Every process 
here recommended has been proved, the plans of others tried, and the result is here 
given." With a Valuable Appendix, containing the observations and experience of some 
of the most successful cultivators of these fruits in our country. 

PEDDERS' (JAMES) FARMERS' LAND MEASURER, - - - - 50 

Or Pocket Companion ; Showing at one view the Contents of 
any Piece of Land, from Dimensions taken in Yards. With a Set of Useful Agricultural 
Tables. 



Books published by A. O. Moore & Co. 

PSRSOZ' CULTURE QP THE VINE, - - - - - - - 25 

A New Process for the Culture of the Vine, by Persoz, Pro- 
fessor of the Faeuity of Sciences of Strasbourg ; Directing Professor of the School of Phar- 
macy of the same city. Translated by J. O'C. Barclay, Surgeon U. S. N. 

PHELPS' BEE KEEPER'S CHART, 25 

Being a Brief Practical Treatise on the Instinct, Habits and 

Management of the Honey Bee, in all its various branches, the result of many years' 
practical experience, whereby the author has been enabled to divest the subject of 
much that has been considered mysterious and difficult to overcome, and render it 
more sure, profitable and interesting to ever}'' one, than it has heretofore been. By E. 
W. Phelps. 

QUINBY'S HYSTERLES OP BEE-KEEPING EXPLAINED, - - 1 00 

Being a Complete Analysis of the Whole Subject, Consisting 

of the Natural History of Bees ; Directions for obtaining the Greatest Amount of Pure 
Surplus Honey with the least possible expense ; Remedies for Losses Given, and the 
Science of Luck fully illustrated ; the result of more than twenty years' experience in 
extensive Apiaries. By M. Qt/inby. 

RANDALL'S (H. S.) SHEEP HUSBANDRY, ------ 1 25 

With an Account of the Different Breeds, and general direc- 
tions in regard to Summer and "Winter Management, Breeding and the Treatment of 
.Diseases, with Portraits and ether engravings. By Henry S. Randall. 

REEMELIN'S (CHAS.) VINE DRESSER'S MANUAL, - - - 50 

An Illustrated Treatise on Vineyards and Wine-Making, 

containing full Instructions as to Location and Soil, Preparation of Ground, Selection and 
Propagation of Fines, the Tr-eatment of Young Vineyards, Trimming and Training the 
• Vines, Manures and the Making of Wine. 

RICHARDSON ON HOGS, ---------- 25 

Their Origin, Varieties and Management, with a View to Profit 

and Treatment under Disease ; also, plain Directions relative to the Most Approved 
Modes of Preserving their Flesh. By H. D. Richardson', author of ■" The Hive and the 
Honey Bee," &c, &c. With illustrations. 

RICHARDSON ON THE HIVE AND THE HONEY BEE, - - - 25 

With Plain Directions for Obtaining a Considerable Annual 

Income from this branch of Rural Economy ; also, an Account of the Diseases of Bees 
and their Remedies, and Remarks as to their Enemies, and the best mode of protecting 
the Hives from their attacks. By K. D. Richardson. With illustrations. 

RICHARDSON ON DOMESTIC POWLS, - 25 

Their Natural History, Breeding, Bearing, and General 

Management. By H. D. Richardson. With illustrations. 
RICHARDSON ON THE HOSSE, -------- 25 

Their Origin and Varieties ; with Plain Directions as to the 

Breeding, Rearing and General Management, with Instructions as to the Treatment of 
Disease. Handsomely illustrated. By H. D. Richardson. 

RICHARDSON ON THE PESTS OP THE PARM, - - - - 25 
With Instructions for their Extirpation ; being a Manual of 

Plain Directions for the Certain Destruction of every description of Vermin. With 
numerous illustrations on Wood. 

RICHARDSON ON DOGS ; THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES, - 50 

Directions as to their General Management. With numerous 

Original Anecdotes. Also, Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. By H. 
, D. Richardson. Illustrated with numerous wood engravings. 

This is not only a cheap, but one of the best works ever published on the Dog. 

SCHENCE'S GARDENER'S TEXT BOOK, ------ 50 

Containing Directions for the Formation and Management 

of the Kitchen Garden s the Culture and Use of Vegetables, Fruits and Medicinal Herbs. 



Books published by A. O. Mooee & Co. 

SHEPHERD'S OWN BOOK, 2 00 

With an Account of the Different Breeds, Diseases and Man- 

agemeiit of Sheep, and General Directions in regard to Summer and Winter Management, 
Breeding and the Treatment of Diseases ; with illustrative engravings by Youatt & 
Randall ; embracing Skinner's Notes on the Breed and Management of Sheep in tha 
United States, and on the Culture of Fine Wool. 

STEWART'S STABLE BOOK, 1 00 

A Treatise on the Management of Horses, in Relation to 

Stabling, Grooming, Feeding, Watering and Working, Construction of Stables, Ventila- 
tion, Appendages of Stables, Management of the Feet, and of Diseased and Defective 
Horses. By John Stewart, Veterinary Surgeon. • With Notes and Additions, adapting 
it to American Food and Climate. By A. B. Allen, Editor of the American Agriculturist. 

STRAY LEAVES FROM THE BOOS 0? NATURE, - - - - 1 00 

By M. Schele De Yere, of the University of Virginia. 

Contexts : I. Only a Pebble. 

LI. Nature in Motion. 
in. The Ocean and its Life. 
TV. A Chat about Plants. 
V. Younger Years of a Plant. 
VI. Later Years of a Plant. 
VTI. Plant Mummies. 
VOI. Unknown Tongues. 
IX. A Trd? to the Moon. 

STEPHENS' (HENRY) BOOK 0E THE FARM, 4 00 

A Complete Guide to the Farmer, Steward, Plowman, Cattle- 

man, Shepherd, Field Worker and Dairy Maid. By Henry Stephens. With Four Hun- 
dred and Fifty illustrations ; to which are added Explanatory Notes, Remarks, &c, by 
J. S. Skinner. Really one of the best books a farmer can possess. 

SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE, 50 

Or Complete Guide to Domestic Cookery, Taste, Comfort, and 

Economy, embracing 659 Recipes pertaining to Household Duties, the Care of Health, 
Gardening, Birds, Education of Children, &c, &c. By Mrs. L. G. Abell. 

SKINNER'S ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, # 25 

Adapted to the Use of American Farmers. By F. G. Skinner,, 

SMITH'S (C. H. J.) LANDSCAPE GARDENING, PARKS AND 

PLEASURE GROUNDS, 1 25 

With Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas,. Public 

Parks and Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and Garden Archi 
tect. With Notes and Additions by Lewis F. Allen, author of " Rural Architecture." 

THAER'S ^ ALBERT D.) AGRICULTURE, 2 00 

The Principles of Agriculture, by Albert D. Thaer ; Trans- 
lated by William: Shaw and Cuthbert W. Johnson, Esq., F. R. S. With a Memoir of 
the Author. 1 vol. 8vo. 

This work is regarded, by those who are competent to judge, as one of the most 
valuable works that has ever appeared on the subject of Agriculture. At the same time 
that it is eminently practical, it is philosophical, and, even to the general reader, re- 
markably entertaining. 

THOMAS' (J. J.) FARM IMPLEMENTS, 1 00 

And the Principles of their Construction and Use ; an Ele- 

mentary and familiar Treatise on Mechanics and Natural Philosophy, as applied to the 
ordinary practices of Agriculture. With 200 illustrations. 

THOMPSON (R. D.) ON THE FOOD OF ANIMALS, - - - .75 

Experimental Eesearches on the Food of Animals and the 

Fattening of Cattle ; with Remarks on the Food of Man. Based upon Experiments under- 
taken by order of the British Government, by Robert Bundas Thompson. M. D., 
Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, University of Glasgow. 



10 Books published by A. O. Moore & Co. 

THE ROSE CULTURIST, ---------- 50 

Being a Practical Treatise on the Propagation, Cultivation, 

and Management of the Rose in all seasons ; with a List of Choice and Approved Varie- 
ties, adapted to the ClimxtJ of the Unite;! States ; to which is added full directions for 
the Treatment of the Dahlia. Illustrated by engravings. 

TOPHAM'S CHEMISTRY MADE EASY, ------- 25 

For the Use of Farmers. By J. Topham. 

TURNER'S COTTON PLANTER'S MANUAL, 1 00 

Being a Compilation of Facts from the Best Authorities on 

the Culture of Cotton, its Natural History, Chemical Analysis, Trade and Consumption, 
and embracing a History of Cotton and the Cotton Gin. By J. A. Turner. 

WARDER'S (J. A.) HEDGES AND EVERGREENS, - - - - 1 00 

A Complete Manual for the Cultivation, Pruning and Man- 

agement of all Plants suitable for American Hedging, especially the Madura or Osage 
Orange. Fully illustrated with engravings of plants, implements and processes. To 
which is added a Treatise on Evergreens, their different Varieties, their propagation, 
transplanting and Culture in the United States. 

WARING'S ELEMENTS 0? AGRICULTURE, ----- 75 

A Book for Young Farmers, with Questions for the use of 

Schools. 

WEEKS (JOHN M.) ON BEES-A MANUAL, 50 

Or, an Easy Method of Managing Bees in the most profit- 

able manner to their Owner ; with Infallible Rules to Prevent their Destruction by the 
Moth. With an Appendix, by Wooster A. Flanders. 

WHITE'S (W. N.) GARDENING E0R THE SOUTH, - - - - 1 25 

Or, the KrrcHEN and Fruit Garden, with the Best Methods 

for their Cultivation ; together with Hints upon Landscape and Flower Gardening ; con- 
taining Modes of Culture and Descriptions of the Species and Varieties of the Culinary 
Vegetables, Fruit Trees and Fruits, and a Select List of Ornamental Trees and Plants, 
Adapted to the States of the Union South of Pennsylvania, with Gardening Calendars for 
the same. By Wm. N. White, of Athens, Georgia. 

Y0UATT AND MARTIN ON CATTLE, - - - - - - . - 1 25 

Being a Treatise on their Breeds, Management, and Diseases, 

comprising a Full History of the Various Races ; their Origin, Breeding and Merits ; 
their capacity for Beef and Milk. By W. Youatt and W. C. L. Marto*. The whole form- 
ing a Complete Guide for the Farmer, the Amateur and the Veterinary Surgeon, with 100 
illustrations. Edited by Ambrose Stevens. 

YOUATT ON THE HORSE, ----- 1 25 

Youatt on the Structure and Diseases of the Horse, with 

their Remedies ; also, Practical Rules for Buyers, Breeders, Smiths, &c. Edited by W. 
C Spooner, M.R.C.V.S. With an Account of the Breeds in the United States, by Henry 
S. Randall. 

YOUATT ON SHEEP, - . - " 75 

Their Breed, Management and Diseases, with Illustrative En- 
gravings ; to which are a kled Remarks on the Breeds and Management of Sheep in the 
United States, and on the Culture of Fine Wool in Silesia. By Wm. Yocait. 

YOUATT AND MARTIN ON THE HOG, 75 

• A Treatise on the Breeds, Management, and Medical Treat- 

ment of Swine, with Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams. By Wm. 
Youatt, V. S., and W. C. L. Martin. Edited by Ambrose Stevens. Illustrated with 
engravings drawn from life. 



Books published by A. O. Moore & Co. 11 

Moore's Hand Books of Rural and Domestic Economy. 

ALL ARRANGED AND ADAPTED TO THE USE OF AMERICAN FARMERS. 

Pice 25 Cents Each. 

HOGS, 

Their Origin, Varieties and Management, with a View to Pro- 
fit and Treatment under Disease ; also, Plain Directions relative to the Most Approved 
Modes of Preserving their Flesh. By H. D. Richardson. With illustrations 

THE HIVE AND THE HONEY BEE, 

With Plain Directions for Obtaining a Considerable Annual 

Income from this branch of Rural Economy ; also, an Account of the Diseases of Bees 
and their Remedies, and Remarks as to their Enemies, and the best mode of protecting 
the Hives from their attacks. By H. D. Richakdson. With illustrations. 

DOMESTIC FOWLS, 

Their Natural History, Breeding, Rearing and General 

Management. By H. D. Richardson. With illustrations. 

THE HORSE, 

Their Origin and Varieties ; with Plain Directions as to the 

Breeding, Rearing and General Management ; with instructions as to the Treatment of 
Disease Handsomely illustrated. By H. D. Richardson. 

THE KOSE, 

The American Rose Culturist ; being a Practical Treatise on the 

• Propagation, Cultivation and Management in all Seasons, &c. ; with full directions for 
the treatment of the Dahlia. 

THE PESTS OF THE FARM, 

With Instructions for their Extirpation ; being a Manual of 

Plain Directions for the Certain Destruction of every description of Vermin. With 
numerous illustrations on wood. 

AN ESSAY ON MANURES, 

Submitted to the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for 

Promoting Agriculture, for their Premium. By Samuel H. Dana. 
THE AMERICAN BIRD FANCIER, 

Considered with Reference to the Breeding, Rearing, Feed- 

ing, Management and Peculiarities of Cage and House Birds. Illustrated with Engrav- 
ings. By D. Jay Browne. 

CHEMISTRY MADE EASY, 

For the Use of Farmers. By J. Topham. 
ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, 

Translated from the French, and Adapted to the use of American 

Farmers. By F. G. Skinner. 
THE HORSE'S FOOT, AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND, 

With Cuts, illustrating tke^Anatomy of. the Foot, and containing 

valuable Hints on Shoeing and Stable Management, both in Health and Disease. By Wm. 
Milks. • 

THE SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE, 

Or, Complete GknnE to Domestic Cookery, Taste, Comfort and 

Economy, embracing G5i Recipes' pertaining to Household Duties, the Care of Health, 
Gar lening, Birds, Education of Children, &c, &c. By Mrs. L. G. Abjbll. 

THE AMERICAN KITCHEN GARDENER, 

Containing Directions for the Cultivation of Vegetables and 

Garden Fruits. By T. G. Fessendex. 



12 Hooks published by A. O. Moore & Co. 

CHINESE SUGAR CANE AND SUGAR-MAKING, 

Its History, Culture and Adaptation to the Soil, Climate 

and Economy of the United States, with an Account of Various Processes of Manufactur- 
ing Sugar. Drawn from authentic sources by Charles F. Stansbury, A. M., late Com- 
missioner at the Exhibition of all Nations at London. 

PERSOZ' CULTUEE OF THE VINE, 

A New Process for the Culture of the Vine, by Persoz, Pro- 
fessor of the Faculty of Sciences of Strasbourg ; Directing Professor of the School of 
Pharmacy of the same city. Translated by J. O'C. Barclay, Surgeon, U. S. N. 

THE BEE-KEEPER'S CHART, 

Being a Brief, Practical Treatise on the Instinct, Habits and 

Management of the Honey Bee, in all its various branches, the result of many years' 
practical experience, whereby the author has been enabled to divest the subject of 
much that has been considered mysterious and difficult to overcome, and render it 
more sure, profitable and interesting to every one, than it has heretofore been. By E. 
W. Phelps. 

EVERY LADY HER OWN GARDENER, 

Addressed to the Industrious and Economical only.; containing 

Simple and Practical Directions for Cultivating Plants and Flowers ; also, Hints for the 
Management of Flowers in Rooms, with Brief Botanical Descriptions of Plants and 
Flowers. The whole in Plain and simple language. By Louisa Johnson. 

THE COW; DAIRY HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE BREEDING, 

By M. M. Milburn, and Revised by H. D. Richardson and 

Ambrose Stevens. With illustrations. 
WILSON ON THE CULTURE OF FLAX, 

Its Treatment, Agricultural and Technical ; delivered before 

the New York State Agricultural Society, at the Annual Fair at Saratoga, in September 
last, by John Wilson, late President of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester 
England. 

WEEKS ON BEES ; A MANUAL, < 

Or, an Easy Method of Managing Bees in the most profitable 

manner to their owner, with Infallible Rules to Prevent their Destruction by the Moth ; 
with an Appendix by Wooster A. Flanders. 

REEMELIN'S (CHAS.) VINE DRESSERS' MANUAL, 

Containing full Instructions as to Location and Soil ; Prepara- 
tion of Ground ; Selection and Propagation of Vines ; The Treatment of a Young Vine- 
yard ; Trimming and Training the Vines ; Manures and the Making of Wine. Every 
department illustrated. 

HYDE'S CHINESE SUGAR CANE, 

Containing its History, Mode of Culture, Manufacture of the 

Sugar, &c. ; with Reports of its success in different parts of the United States. 
BEMENT'S (C. M.) RABBIT FANCIER, 

A Treatise on tup: Breeding, Rearing, Feeding, and General 

Management of Rabbits, with. Remarks upon their Diseases and Remedies; to which 
are added Full Directions for the Construction of Hutches, Babbitries, &c, together with 
■ Recipes for cooking and dressing for the table. 

RICHARDSON ON D'MSS ; THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES, 

Directions as to their General Management. With numerous 

Original Anecdotes ; also, Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. By H. 
D. Richakdscx. Illustrated with numerous wood engravings. 
This is not only a cheap, but one of the best works ever published en the Bog. 

LIEBIS'S (JUSTUS) FAMILIAR LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY, 

And its Relation to Commerce, Physiology, and Agriculture. 
Edits i by John Gardener, M. D. 

THE BOG AND GUN, 

A Few Loose Chapters on Shooting, among which will be found 

some Anecdotes and Incidents ; also, Instructions for Leg Breaking, and interesting let- 
ters from Sportsmen . By A Bad Shot. 



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